Academic drama

Academic drama is a theatrical movement that emerged in the mid 16th century during the Renaissance. Dedicated to the study of classical dramas for the purpose of higher education, universities in England began to produce the plays of Sophocles, Euripides, and Seneca the Younger (among others) in the Greek and Roman languages, as well as neoclassical dramas. These classical and neoclassical productions were performed by young scholars at universities in Cambridge and Oxford.^[1] Other European countries, such as Spain and Italy adapted classical plays into a mixture of Latin and vernacular dramas. These Spanish and Italian adaptations were used in teaching morals in schools and colleges.^[2] The intellectual development of dramas in schools, universities, and Inns of Court in Europe allowed the emergence of the great playwrights of the late 16th century.^[3]

Academic drama at Oxford University

Hall of Christ Church, Oxford

The history of academic drama at Oxford University may be traced back to the mid 16th century. While there are records indicating dramatic performances were performed prior, dramatic production greatly increased in the 16th century.^[4] Academic dramas were performed in Christ Church and St. John's College at Oxford.^[5] The plays produced at Oxford were originally written in Latin, based on classical models. Used to teach playwriting and acting, these plays were written by both the students and instructors. In performance, audiences typically consisted of fellow students, though visits from royalty occasionally occurred. Among these royals were Queen Elizabeth I and King James I.^[6]

It is evident that academic drama at Oxford was highly regarded as a crucial part of the educational experience. The university covered all performance expenses. Additionally, no entrance fees were charged.^[7]

Academic drama at Cambridge University

St. John's College, Cambridge, England-LCCN2002696460

In producing academic drama, the colleges at Cambridge University were decidedly confined to performing Latin works. When Queen Elizabeth I sent requests to both Cambridge and Oxford requesting the performance of an English comedy, she was met with a decline from Cambridge. Cambridge replied they did not use plays in English.^[8] However, it must be noted that though Cambridge did not indulge the Queen with an English comedy, they were not opposed to neo-Latin comedies. The majority of surviving English neo-Latin university dramas were performed at Cambridge.^[9] Performances at Cambridge were in Latin^[10] and the material of choice was the classics. Folios found at St. John's at Cambridge show records of costumes housed for performances. It is believed these costumes were used in the acting of classical works by Aristophanes and Terence, as well as in morality plays.^[11]

Academic drama at the Inns of Court

The Inns of Court are referred to as the third university of England.^[12] Inns of Court were where practicing lawyers and law students gathered to eat, socialize, gain legal education, board, and be entertained. There were four of these Inns of Court: Gray's Inn, Inner Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Middle Temple.^[13] In contrast to Cambridge and Oxford, who produced theatre as a literary study, the London Inns of Court produced theatre as a means of entertainment.^[14] Beginning around 1587, the Inns of Court produced masques and revels, yet another contrast from the Oxford and Cambridge plays.^[15] Until the end of the 17th century, these performances typically took the form of masques written by law students at the Inns of Court. Once the Inns of Court transitioned from masques to plays, the so-called third university served as the cradle for classical English drama. Eventually, by the early 17th century, writers such as Ben Jonson and William Shakespeare began producing English comedies at the Inns of Court, thus expanding the range of materials performed.^[16] After 1614, the masques were written and designed by professionals; simultaneously the new emerging dramas were written and performed by professional theatre practitioners.^[17] Due to the close proximity to the English court, nobility frequently attended the performances at the Inns of Court.^[18]

Classical drama performed

Academic drama was formed as an educational tool, not only to advance the arts, but to teach classical literature and language. Key subject matter for performance were classical dramas of ancient Greece and Rome. Prominent playwrights whose works were performed as part of the academic drama tradition include Aristophanes, Plautus, Seneca the younger, and Terrence.

Play	Playwright	Date Performed	Location of Performance	Language
Plutus	Aristophanes	1536	St. John's, Cambridge	Greek
Pax	Aristophanes	1546	Trinity, Cambridge	Greek
Penulus	Plautus	1549	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
Troades	Seneca the younger	1551-2	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Menaechmi	Plautus	1551-2	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Stichus	Plautus	1544	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
a commedie	Plautus	1557	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Oedipus	Seneca the younger	1559–60	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Mostellaria	Plautus	1559–60	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Hecuba (play)	Seneca the younger	1559–60	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Amphitruo	Plautus	1560-1	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Troades	Seneca the younger	1560-1	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Medea	Seneca the younger	1560-1	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Adelphi	Terence	1562-3	Jesus, Cambridge	Latin
Curculio (play)	Plautus	1562-3	Jesus, Cambridge	Latin
Pseudolus	Plautus	1562-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Adelphi	Terence	1562-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Phormio (play)	Terence	1562-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Medea	Seneca the younger	1563	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
Eunuchus	Terence	1563-4	Jesus, Cambridge	Latin
Trinummus	Plautus	1563-4	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Bacchides (play)	Plautus	1563-4	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Aulularia	Plautus	1563-4	King's, Cambridge	Latin
Stichus	Plautus	1564-5	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Menaechmi	Plautus	1565-6	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Eunuchus	Terence	1566-7	Merton, Oxford	Latin
Menaechmi	Plautus	1567-8	Merton, Oxford	Latin
Bacchides (play)	Plautus	1579	Jesus, Cambridge	Latin
Persa (play)	Plautus	1583	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Hippolytus	Seneca the younger (with additional scenes by Gager)	1591-2	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin

^[19]

Neo-Latin/English drama performed

Neo-Latin or New Latin dramas as they may also be referred to, were plays written in Latin by students and professors at Oxford, Cambridge, and the Inns of Court. Subject matter ranged from religious, to satirical, to mythological.^[20] Eventually these original plays began to be written in English, preparing the way for the English drama of the Elizabethan Age.^[21]

Play	Playwright	Date Performed	Location of Performance	Language
Microcosmus	T. Artour	1520–32	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Mundas Plumbeus	T. Artour	1520–32	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Piscator siue Fraus Illusa	J. Hoker	1535–43	Magdalen, Oxford	Latin
Thersites	Anon.	1537	Magdalen, Oxford	English
Christus Rediuiuus	Nicholas Grimald	1540	Brasenose, Oxford	Latin
Christus Nascens	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Chrich, Oxford	Latin
Protomartyr	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Fama	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Athanasius siue infamia	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Troilus	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Church, Oxford	English
De puerorum in musicis institutione	Nicholas Grimald	1540-	Merton or Christ Church, Oxford	English
Absalon	T. Watson	c. 1540	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
dialogus	R. Textor	1543	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
Pammachius	T. Kirchmayer	1545	Christ's, Cambridge	Latin
Archiproheta	Nicholas Grimald	1546-7	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Heli	H. Ziegler	1547-8	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
Grammer Gurtons Nedle	undetermined	1550–60	Christ's, Cambridge	English
Strylius	Nicholas Robinson (bishop)	1552-3	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
A lernyd tragedy	Anon.	1553-6	New College, Oxford	Latin
de crumena perdita	Anon.	1554-5	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
both the English plaies	Anon.	1559–60	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Sapientia Solomonis	Sixt Birck	1559–60	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Acolastus	Wilhelm Gnapheus	1560-1	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
John babtiste	George Buchanan	1562-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Christus Triumphans	J. Foxe	1562-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Dido	E. Haliwell	1564	King's, Cambridge	Latin
Ezechias	Nicholas Udall	1564	King's, Cambridge	English
A burlesque on the Romanist bishops	Anon.	1564	At Hinchinbrook, Cambridge	English
Philanira	C. Roilletus	1564-5	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Asotus	Macropedius	1565-6	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Crumenaria	Anon.	1565-6	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Marcus Geminus	Anon.	1566	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Palamon and Arcyte Parts 1 and 2	Richard Edwardes	1566	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Progne	James Calfhill	1566	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Iephthes	J. Christopherson	1566-7	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Wylie Beguylie	Anon.	1566-7	Merton, Oxford	English
Damon and Pythias (play)	Richard Edwardes	1567-8	Merton, Oxford	English
The Destruction of Thebes	Anon.	1569	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Hymenaeus	Abraham Fraunce or H. Hickman	c. 1578-9	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Victoria	Abraham Fraunce	1579–83	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Richardus Tertius	Thomas Legge	1579–80	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
The Destruction of Jerusalem	Thomas Legge	1580–98	Caius, Cambridge	Latin
Pendantius	A. Wingfield	1580-1	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Puer vapulans	Anon.	1581-2	Jesus, Cambridge	Latin
Supposes	G. Gascoigne	1581-2	Trinity, Oxford	English
Caesar Interfectus	R. Eedes	1581-2	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Meleager	W. Gager	1581-2	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Bellum Grammaticale	Leonard Hutten	c. 1582	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Comedy satirizing the Mayor of Cambridge	T. Mudde	1582-3	Pembroke, Oxford	English
Riuales	W. Gager	1583	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Dido	W. Gager	1583	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Meleager	W. Gager	1584-5	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Tarrarantantara turba trigonum Tri-Harueyorum	Anon.	1585-6	Clare Hall, Cambridge	Latin
Duns furens	Anon.	1585-6	Peterhouse, Cambridge	Latin
Terminus et non terminus	Thomas Nashe and other student	c. 1586	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Octavia	pseudo-Senecan	1588	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Vlysses Redux	W. Gager	1591-2	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Bellum Grammaticale	Leonard Hutten	1592	Christ Church, Oxford	Latin
Roxana	W. Alabaster	c. 1592	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Caesars Reuenge	Anon.	c. 1594	Trinity, Oxford	Latin
Laelia	Anon.	1594-5	Queens', Cambridge	Latin
Siluanus	Anon.	1596-7	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Hispanus	Anon.	1596-7	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
Machiauellus	Anon.	1597	St. John's, Cambridge	Latin
The Pilgrimage to Parnassus Parnassus plays	Anon.	1598	St. John's, Cambridge	English
Leander	W. Hawkesworth	1598-9	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Club Law	G. Ruggle	1599–1600	Clare Hall, Cambridge	English
The Return from Parnassus Part I Parnassus plays	Anon.	1601	St. John's, Cambridge	English
The Return from Parnassus Part II Parnassus plays	Anon.	1602	St. John's, Cambridge	English
Narcissus	Anon.	1602-3	St. John's, Oxford	English
Leander	W. Hawkesworth	1602-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Labyrinthus	W. Hawkesworth	1602-3	Trinity, Cambridge	Latin
Nero	M. Gwynne	1602-3	St. John's, Oxford	Latin

^[22]

References

1. Boas, Fredrick (1966). University Drama in the Tudor Age. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc. pp. 16–19.
2. Leicester, Bradner (1957). "The Latin Drama of the Renaissance (1340–1640)". Studies in the Renaissance. 4: 31–54. doi:10.2307/2857139. JSTOR 2857139.
3. Brooke, Tucker (December 1946). "Latin Drama in Renaissance England". ELH. 13 (4): 233–240. doi:10.2307/2871446. JSTOR 2871446.
4. Robertson, Roderick (March 1969). "Oxford Theatre in Tudor Times". Educational Theatre Journal. 21 (1): 41–2. doi:10.2307/3205776. JSTOR 3205776.
5. Nelson, Alan H. (2009). "Emulating Royalty: Cambridge, Oxford, and the Inns of Court". Shakespeare Studies. 37: 67–76. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
6. Robertson, Roderick (March 1969). "Oxford Theatre in Tudor Times". Educational Theatre Journal. 21 (1): 4–46. doi:10.2307/3205776. JSTOR 3205776.
7. Robertson, Roderick (March 1969). "Oxford Theatre in Tudor Times". Educational Theatre Journal. 21 (1): 47. doi:10.2307/3205776. JSTOR 3205776.
8. Brooke, Tucker (December 1946). "Latin Drama in Renaissance England". ELH. 13 (4): 234. doi:10.2307/2871446. JSTOR 2871446.
9. Greenwood, David (December 1964). "The Staging of Neo-Latin Plays in Sixteenth Century England". Educational Theatre Journal. 16 (4): 323. doi:10.2307/3204572. JSTOR 3204572.
10. Brooke, Tucker (December 1946). "Latin Drama in Renaissance England". ELH. 13 (4): 323. doi:10.2307/2871446. JSTOR 2871446.
11. Billington, Sandra (February 1978). "Sixteenth-Century Drama in St. John's College, Cambridge". The Review of English Studies, New Series. 29 (113): 8–9. doi:10.1093/res/xxix.113.1. JSTOR 514357.
12. Nelson, Alan H. (2009). "Emulating Royalty: Cambridge, Oxford, and the Inns of Court". Shakespeare Studies. 37: 67–76. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
13. Prest, Wilfrid R. (1972). The Inns of Court under Elizabeth I and the Early Stuarts 1590–1640. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-50831-2.
14. Green, A. Wigfall (1931). The Inns of Court and Early English Drama. New York: Benjamin Blom.
15. Nelson, Alan H. (2009). "Emulating Royalty: Cambridge, Oxford, and the Inns of Court". Shakespeare Studies. 37: 67–76. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
16. Green, A. Wigfall (1931). The Inns of Court and Early English Drama. New York: Benjamin Blom.
17. Prest, Wilfrid R. (1972). The Inns of Court under Elizabeth I and the Early Stuarts 1590–1640. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-50831-2.
18. Nelson, Alan H. (2009). "Emulating Royalty: Cambridge, Oxford, and the Inns of Court". Shakespeare Studies. 37: 67–76. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
19. Boas, Fredrick (1966). University Drama in the Tudor Age. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc.
20. Boas, Fredrick (1966). University Drama in the Tudor Age. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc. pp. 16–19.
21. Brooke, Tucker (December 1946). "Latin Drama in Renaissance England". ELH. 13 (4): 233–240. doi:10.2307/2871446. JSTOR 2871446.
22. Boas, Fredrick (1966). University Drama in the Tudor Age. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc.