Aman ul-Mulk

Aman ul-Mulk was the Mehtar of Chitral who ruled it from 1857 to 1892.[1][2][3][4] His rule saw Chitral reach its territorial peak, extending from Ishkamun in Gilgit Agency to Asmar in Afghanistan.[5] His death lead to the Siege of Chitral an instance of high drama,[6] which goes down in the annals of British India as an epic of enormous courage and determination.[7]

Early years

Accession and attributes

Muhtarram Shah Kator the III was succeeded by his second son, Aman ul-Mulk,[8] in order to succeed Aman ul-Mulk had killed his elder brother in 1856.[9] Thus in 1857, Aman climbed to the throne of Chitral, by steps slippery with the blood he had shed.[10] He is referred to in local chronicles as the Great Mehtar, who ruled over the valleys with true oriental despotism between 1857 and 1892.[11][12][13] Sir George John Younghusband denoted him as a “strong and astitute” ruler.[14] Lord Curzon acclaimed him as "The very man for such a state and such times”.[15]

Territorial expansion

Aman ul-Mulk ruled over Upper and Lower Chitral extending from the borders of Punjab on one side to the borders of Kafiristan and Dir on the other. The northern boundary of his dominion was the watershed of the Hindu Kush.[16] In those early years, up to 1871, Chitral still paid tribute to Badakhshan in slaves, but it would be absurd to infer from this fact that Chitral ever acknowledged the suzerainty of Jehandar Shah or of the Afghan faction that dispossessed him.[17]

1878 agreement and effects

In 1878 Aman ul-Mulk being anxious of aggression by the Amir of Afghanistan placed Chitral under the nominal suzerainty of the Maharaja of Kashmir. This brought him into direct touch with the Government of India, with whom from that time until his death he did all he could to maintain friendly relations. In 1885 a mission under Sir William Lockhart visited Chitral and was very cordially received, and so too was Colonel Durand, who went there in 1888.[18][19]

By the agreement of 1878 Aman ul-Mulk the Mehtar or Chief of Chitral got an annual subsidy of Rs 12,000 from the ruler of Kashmir. The Mehtar was to present the latter annually three horses, five hawks and five Tezi dogs. Further a treaty was signed between the Amir of Afghanistan and Mortimer Durand that the former would not interfere in Bajaur, Dir, Swat and Chitral. But the disagreements increased after settlement.[20] More than anything else, it was Aman ul-Mulk, sense of his own interests which led him to rely upon Kashmir and the British.[21][22][23][24]

Aman ul-Mulk, now secure and strengthened, swiftly eliminated his old rivals south of the Hindu Kush and was able as a result to expand his dominion from Ishkamun in the Gilgit Agency to Asmar in Afghanistan.[25] The two valleys of Chitral, along the perceived border with Afghanistan were unified under Aman ul-Mulk in 1880, with encouragement from Colonel Biddulph.[26]

External pressures

For the first time after the withdrawal of the Gilgit Agency in 1881 the Amir of Afghanistan Abd-ar-Rahman, in a letter, claimed suzerainty over Chitral in 1882, he claimed Chitral in unqualified terms and asked its rule Aman ul-Mulk to acknowledge his suzerainty and declared that the British had no right of interference with the affairs of his Chiefship. The Governor General of India, Lord Ripon could not leave the letter unchallenged. After telegraphic references to London for permission to threaten Abd-ar-Rahman with ‘force of arms if needful’. Ripon warned him, tactfully, whereupon Abd-ar-Rahman promised to desist from interferong in the affairs of Chitral in the future.[27]

However, on 14 June 1877, officials of the Amir came to Chitral to arrange for the betrothal of one of the Mehtars daughters to the Amirs eldest son, Sardar Habibullah Khan. And to hussel the Mehtar into concluding the matrimonial alliance. The Amir imposed political and economic pressures. Aman however did not crumble to this pressure and continued to be reluctant to enter into the said marriage alliance without the sanction of the British Government.[28] With the few incidence of turbulence apart Chitral remained relatively undisturbed during this period noting which Churchill wrote, "Meanwhile Aman ul-Mulk ruled in Chitral showing great respect for the wishes of the British Government and in the enjoyment of his subsidy and comparative peace".[29]

Further events

In October 1889, Colonel Durand arrived in Chitral, the Mehtars reception of his guest was most cordial. During the course of the visit Aman readily agreed to the following depending on receipt of increased subsidy:

  1. His assistance in opening up the Peshawar-Chitral road.
  2. Improving the main path in his country to tracks passable by laden muels.
  3. Fortification of certain selected positions to be afterword’s pointed out to him.[30]

In 1886, and again in 1888, he sent two of his sons, Afzul ul-Mulk and Nizam ul-Mulk, down to India. They came back much impressed with what they had seen and did all they could to strengthern the alliance of their father with the Great Sircar.[31]

Death

Expiry

Aman ul-Mulk died very suddenly and all the circumstances of his death indicate that he succumbed in the ordinary course of nature to a sudden attack of illness but it is so unusual in Chitral for a Mehtar to come to come to a peaceful end, that most of the Chitralies believe that he was poisoned.[32]

Gravity

By the time of Aman ul-Mulk’s death in 1892, Chitrals primary importance was that it contained the series of valleys stretching from Wakhan to British held India. Fear of this area as an invasion route went back to 1874, amid the claim that Russia could be in British territory within thirteen days with an army if held Chitral.[33] During the Viceroyalty of Lord Lytton, it was deemed expedient, in view of Russian military activity in Central Asia, to obtain more effective control over the passes of the Hindu Kush.[34] And it was the same menace, real or fanciful, which prompted the Marquess of Lansdowne to re-establish the Gilgit Agency in 1889.[35]

Until 1892 Mehtar Aman ul-Mulk had provided a sturdy bulwark to British interests, his death had jeopardised that security.[36] The British preferred to conciliate Nizam ul-Mulk, as he was connected with Umra Khan of Jandul and with the influential Mullah Shahu Baba of Bajaur through his maternal uncle Kokhan Beg. He also had connections in Badakshan, Hunza and Dir.[37]

Build-up to the siege of Chitral

However, with Aman ul-Mulks death, all hell broke loose in Chitral,[38] a three way struggle for succession broke out between two of his sons, Nizam ul-Mulk and Afzal ul-Mulk and their uncle Sher Afzal.[39] Having the fortune of being on the spot Afzal took control and proclaimed himself Mehtar. The first thing that Afzal did was to invite as many brothers as were within reach to a banquet where he murdered them.[40]

Nizam ul-Mulk was away in Yasin of which he was the Governor, when the Mehtarship was seized by his brother Afzal ul-Mulk. Anxious to consolidate his power Afzal asked the British that an officer might be send to reside permanently in Chitral. Before, however, any arrangements could be made he was killed, after a short reign of a few months by his uncle Sher Afzul. Nizam ul-Mulk at once hurried to Chitral and succeeded in ousting Sher Afzul.[41]

It was the landing of William of Orange on a reduced scale and with Cashmere troops instead of Dutch guards. Twelve hundred men sent by Sher Afzul to oppose him fled to his side. The avuncular usurper, realising that it might be dangerous to wait longer, fled to Afghanistan, as James II had fled to France, was received by the ruler with hospitality and carefully preserved as an element of future disorder.
— Winston Churchill, The Story of the Malakand Field Force

Nizam, like his brother, asked that a political officer might reside in Chitral territory; and Captain Youngshusband was accordingly sent to Mastuj. Later probably not feeling himself very secure Nizam urged for the headquarters of the residence political officer who happened at that time to be Lieutenant Gurdon, to be shifted from Mastuj to Chitral but while the question was still under determination the Mehtar was murdered by his brother Amir ul-Mulk. Amir demanded recondition from Lieutenant Gurdon who was acting as assistant Political Agent in Chitral. When Amir ul-Mulk came to him he very properly said that he had no power to grant recognition until instructed to do so by the Government of India but that in all probability he would be recognised.[42]

Aftermath

Amir ul-Mulk had shown himself quite unfit to rule. He had made himself hateful to the Chitralies and had been guilty of treachery to the English. Sir George Robertson therefore declared that subject to the approval of the Government of India, Shuja ul-Mulk his younger brother was recognised as Mehtar.[43] The critical nature of the situation leading up to the siege of Chitral is brought out very clearly in the speech made by Lord Elgin, the Viceroy of India, on 29 March 1895, to the Supreme Legislative Council.[44]

Description

Though admirably suited to govern a savage people, he was exceedingly cruel, treacherous and vindictive. Sir Lepel Griffin has called him – ''a translucent old savage''. At his accession he killed all his near relations except his brother Sher Afzul, who fled.[45] Historian John Keay has put him down as "the cunning genius".[46] whereas orientalist, Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner has referred to him as, "A terrible man, who to extraordinary courage joined the arts of the diplomatist".[47][48][49]

Murder of Hayward

Aman ul-Mulk is believed to be the instigator of the murder of British explorer George W. Hayward through the agency of Mir Wali of Yasin.[50]

References

  1. ↑ Dani, Ahmad Hassan (2001). History of Northern Areas of Pakistan. University of Michigan: Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 268. ISBN 9693512316.
  2. ↑ Cacopardo, Alberto M (2001). Gates of Peristan: History, religion and society in the Hindu Kush.
  3. ↑ Ahmad, Aziz; Ishwaran, Karigoudar (1973-12-01). Contributions to Asian Studies. Brill Archive. p. 88.
  4. ↑ Keay, John (1990-01-01). The Gilgit Game: The Explorers of the Western Himalayas, 1865-1895. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195773989.
  5. ↑ Central Asia. Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar. 1979-01-01. p. 42.
  6. ↑ Tripodi, Christian (2016-04-29). Edge of Empire: The British Political Officer and Tribal Administration on the North-West Frontier 1877–1947. Routledge. p. 85. ISBN 9781317146025.
  7. ↑ Ingersoll, Ernest (1992-01-01). Explorers Journal. Explorers Club.
  8. ↑ Wylly, Harold Carmichael (1912-01-01). From the Black Mountain to Waziristan: Being an Account of the Border Countries and the More Turbulent of the Tribes Controlled by the North-west Frontier Province, and of Our Military Relations with Them in the Past. Macmillan.
  9. ↑ Sherson, Erroll (1928-01-01). Townshend of Chitral and Kut. W. Heinemann Limited.
  10. ↑ Robertson, Sir George Scott (2001-01-01). Chitrál: the story of a minor siege. Bhavana Books & Prints. p. 22. ISBN 9788186505526.
  11. ↑ Maraini, Fosco (1964-01-01). Where Four Worlds Meet: Hindu Kush, 1959. Harcourt, Brace & World. p. 135.
  12. ↑ Israr-ud-Din (2008-01-01). Proceedings of the Third International Hindu Kush Cultural Conference. Oxford University Press. p. 355. ISBN 9780195798890.
  13. ↑ Hannigan, Tim (2011-04-11). Murder in the Hindu Kush: George Hayward and the Great Game. The History Press. p. 232. ISBN 9780752463872.
  14. ↑ Pande, Rashmi (1986-01-01). The Viceroyalty of Lord Elgin II. Janaki Prakashan. p. 59.
  15. ↑ Central Asia. Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar. 1979-01-01. p. 41.
  16. ↑ British Paramountcy in Kashmir. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. 1991-01-01. p. 117.
  17. ↑ Leitner, G. W. (1893-01-01). Dardistan In 1866, 1886 And 1893. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120612174.
  18. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. p. 2. ISBN 9781781513491.
  19. ↑ Branch, India Manager, Government of India Central Publication (1931-01-01). Memoranda on the India States, 1930: (Corrected Up to the 1st January 1930). p. 99.
  20. ↑ British Paramountcy in Kashmir. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. 1991-01-01. p. 117.
  21. ↑ A Collection of Treaties, Engagements, and Sunnuds, Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries: Punjab, Jammu, Kashmir, Baluchistan, etc. G. A. Savielle and P. M. Cranenburgh, Bengal Print. Company. 1892-01-01.
  22. ↑ Ewans, Martin (2008-05-15). George Nathaniel Curzon: Travels in Asia: Collected Writings. Routledge. p. 209. ISBN 9780415456159.
  23. ↑ of), George Nathaniel Curzon Curzon (Marquis; King, Peter (1984-01-01). A viceroy's India: leaves from Lord Curzon's note-book. Sidgwick & Jackson. 126. ISBN 9780283991660.
  24. ↑ Leaves from a Viceroy's Note-book and Other Papers. Macmillan and Company, limited. 1926-01-01.
  25. ↑ Central Asia. Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar. 1979-01-01. p. 42.
  26. ↑ Haines, Chad (2013-03-01). Nation, Territory, and Globalization in Pakistan: Traversing the Margins. Routledge. ISBN 9781136449970.
  27. ↑ Chohan, Amar Singh (1997-01-01). Gilgit Agency 1877-1935Second Reprint. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 76. ISBN 9788171561469.
  28. ↑ Chohan, Amar Singh (1997-01-01). Gilgit Agency 1877-1935Second Reprint. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 77. ISBN 9788171561469.
  29. ↑ Churchill, Sir Winston S. (1899-01-01). The Story of the Malakand Field Force: an Episode of Frontier War. Library of Alexandria. ISBN 9781465526007.
  30. ↑ Chohan, Amar Singh (1997-01-01). Gilgit Agency 1877-1935Second Reprint. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 90. ISBN 9788171561469.
  31. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 2–3. ISBN 9781781513491.
  32. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. p. 3. ISBN 9781781513491.
  33. ↑ Diener, Alexander C.; Hagen, Joshua (2010-01-16). Borderlines and Borderlands: Political Oddities at the Edge of the Nation-State. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 62. ISBN 9780742568440.
  34. ↑ Davies, C. Collin (2013-10-17). The Problem of the North-West Frontier, 1890-1908. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 9781107662094.
  35. ↑ Davies, C. Collin (2013-10-17). The Problem of the North-West Frontier, 1890-1908. Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 9781107662094.
  36. ↑ Tripodi, Christian (2016-04-29). Edge of Empire: The British Political Officer and Tribal Administration on the North-West Frontier 1877–1947. Routledge. p. 85. ISBN 9781317146025.
  37. ↑ Leitner, G. W. (1893-01-01). Dardistan In 1866, 1886 And 1893. Asian Educational Services. p. 6. ISBN 9788120612174.
  38. ↑ Stewart, Jules (2007-08-15). The Savage Border: The History of the North-West Frontier. Sutton Publishing. p. 102. ISBN 9780750944526.
  39. ↑ Ewans, Martin (2010-04-08). Securing the Indian Frontier in Central Asia: Confrontation and Negotiation, 1865-1895. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 9781136995378.
  40. ↑ Leitner, G. W. (1893-01-01). Dardistan In 1866, 1886 And 1893. Asian Educational Services. p. 8. ISBN 9788120612174.
  41. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9781781513491.
  42. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 3–9. ISBN 9781781513491.
  43. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. p. 22. ISBN 9781781513491.
  44. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. pp. 25–34. ISBN 9781781513491.
  45. ↑ Thomson, H. C. (2012-11-19). The Chitral Campaign. Andrews UK Limited. p. 1. ISBN 9781781513491.
  46. ↑ Keay, John (1990-01-01). The Gilgit Game: The Explorers of the Western Himalayas, 1865-1895. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195773989.
  47. ↑ Leitner, Gottlieb William (2002-01-01). Writings of Dr. Leitner. Government College, Research and Publication Society. ISBN 9789693513066.
  48. ↑ Asian Review. East & West. 1893-01-01.
  49. ↑ The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record. Oriental Institute. 1893-01-01.
  50. ↑ Leitner, G. W. (1893-01-01). Dardistan In 1866, 1886 And 1893. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120612174.
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