Criticism of atheism

"Atheistic criticism" redirects here. For the persecution of and discrimination against atheists, see Discrimination against atheists.

Criticism of atheism is criticism of the concepts, validity, or impact of atheism, including associated political and social implications. Criticisms include positions based on the history of science, findings in the natural sciences, theistic apologetic arguments, arguments pertaining to ethics and morality, the effects of atheism on the individual, or the assumptions that underpin atheism.

Various contemporary agnostics like Carl Sagan[1] and theists such as Dinesh D'Souza[2] and key figures in the scientific revolution such as Sir Isaac Newton[3] have criticised atheism for being an unscientific position. Analytic philosopher Alvin Plantinga, Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at the University of Notre Dame, argues that a failure of theistic arguments might conceivably be good grounds for agnosticism, but not for atheism, and points to the observation of an apparently "fine-tuned Universe" as more likely to be explained by theism than atheism. Oxford Professor of Mathematics John Lennox holds that atheism is an inferior world view to that of theism, and attributes to C.S. Lewis the best formulation of Merton's Thesis that science sits more comfortably with theistic notions, on the basis that Men became scientific in Western Europe in the 16th and 17th century "Because they expected law in nature, and they expected law in nature because they believed in a lawgiver.' In other words, it was belief in God that was the motor that drove modern science." The leading American geneticist Francis Collins also cites Lewis as persuasive in convincing him that theism is the more rational world view than atheism.

Other criticisms focus on perceived effects on morality and social cohesion. The Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, a deist, saw godlessness as weakening "the sacred bonds of society", writing "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him". The father of Classical Liberalism, John Locke, believed that the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos. Edmund Burke, a 19th-century Irish philosopher and statesman praised by both his conservative and liberal peers for his "comprehensive intellect", saw religion as the basis of civil society and wrote that "man is by his constitution a religious animal; that atheism is against, not only our reason, but our instincts; and that it cannot prevail long". Pope Pius XI wrote that Communist atheism was aimed at "upsetting the social order and at undermining the very foundations of Christian civilization". In the 1990s, Pope John Paul II criticised a spreading "practical atheism" as clouding the "religious and moral sense of the human heart" and leading to societies which struggle to maintain harmony.[4]

The advocacy of atheism by some of the more violent exponents of the French Revolution, the subsequent militancy of Marxist-Leninist atheism, and prominence of atheism in totalitarian states formed in the 20th century is often cited in critical assessments of the implications of atheism. In his Reflections on the Revolution in France, Burke railed against "atheistical fanaticism". The 1937 papal encyclical Divini Redemptoris denounced the atheism of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, which was later influential in the establishment of state atheism across Eastern Europe and elsewhere, including Mao Zedong's China, Communist North Korea and Pol Pot's Cambodia. Critics of atheism often associate the actions of 20th-century state atheism with broader atheism in their critiques. Various poets, novelists and lay theologians, among them G. K. Chesterton and C.S. Lewis, have also criticized atheism. For example, Chesterton holds that "He who does not believe in God will believe in anything."[5]

Definitions and concepts

Atheism is the absence of belief that any gods exist,[6][7] the position that there are no gods,[8] or the rejection of belief in the existence of gods.[9]

Deism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but does not intervene in human affairs through special revelation.[10] Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature.[11] Christian deism refers to a deist who believes in the moral teachings but not the divinity of Jesus.

Arguments and positions

The last 50 years has seen an increase in academic philosophical arguments critical of the positions of atheism arguing that they are philosophically unsound.[12] Some of the more common of these arguments are the presumption of atheism,[13] the logical argument from evil,[14] the evidential argument from evil,[15][16][17] the argument from nonbelief,[18] and absence of evidence arguments.

The Presumption of Atheism

Philosopher Antony Garrard Newton Flew
Philosopher Antony Garrard Newton Flew Authored The Presumption of Atheism in 1976

In 1976, the well-known atheist Analytic Philosopher Antony Flew wrote The Presumption of Atheism, in which he argued that the question of God's existence should begin by assuming the position of atheism. When he forwarded this proposition, the norm for academic philosophy and public dialogue was for atheists to argue that God does not exist with theists taking the opposite position, with both the atheist and theist having a 'burden of proof' for their respective positions.[19][20] In his 1976 publication Flew proposed that his academic peers redefine 'atheism' to bring about these changes:

What I want to examine is the contention that the debate about the existence of God should properly begin from the presumption of atheism, that the onus of proof must lie upon the theist. The word 'atheism', however, has in this contention to be construed unusually. Whereas nowadays the usual meaning of 'atheist' in English is 'someone who asserts that there is no such being as God, I want the word to be understood not positively but negatively... in this interpretation an atheist becomes: not someone who positively asserts the non-existence of God; but someone who is simply not a theist.

The introduction of this new interpretation of the word 'atheism' may appear to be a piece of perverse Humpty-Dumptyism, going arbitrarily against established common usage. 'Whyever', it could be asked, don't you make it not the presumption of atheism but the presumption of agnosticism?[19]

— Excerpts from The Presumption of Atheism, by Anthony Flew, 1976

Flew's proposition saw little acceptance in the 20th century though in the early 21st century Flew's broader definition of atheism came to be forwarded more commonly.[21][22] In 2007, Analytic Philosopher William Lane Craig's described the presumption of atheism as  "one of the most commonly proffered justifications of atheism."[23] And in 2010, BBC journalist William Crawley explained that Flew's presumption of atheism "made the case, now followed by today's new atheism" arguing that atheism should be the default position.[20][24] In today's debates atheists forward the presumption of atheism arguing that atheism is the default position [25][26] with no burden of proof,[27][28] and assert that the burden of proof for God's existence rests solely on the theist.[19][29][30]

The presumption of atheism has been the subject of criticism by atheists [31][32] agnostics,[33] and theists[34][35] since Flew advance his position more than 40 years ago.

Criticism of the presumption of atheism

The agnostic Analytic Philosopher Anthony Kenny rejected the presumption of atheism on any definition of atheism arguing that "the true default position is neither theism nor atheism, but agnosticism" adding "a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated, ignorance need only be confessed."[32]  

Many different definitions may be offered of the word 'God'. Given this fact, atheism makes a much stronger claim than theism does. The atheist says that no matter what definition you choose, 'God exists' is always false. The theist only claims that there is some definition which will make 'God exists' true. In my view, neither the stronger nor the weaker claim has been convincingly established".[36]
— Excerpt from What I Believe, by Anthony Kenny, 2007
Modal Logician Philosopher Alvin Plantinga is widely regarded as the world's most important living Christian philosopher
Modal Logician Philosopher Alvin Plantinga is widely regarded as the worlds most important Christian Philosopher[37]

Outspoken atheist Philosopher Kai Nielsen criticized the presumption of atheism arguing that without an independent concept of rationality or a concept of rationality that atheists and theists can mutually accepted, there is no common foundation on which to adjudicate rationality of positions concerning the existence of God.  Because the atheist's conceptualization of 'rational' differs from the theist, Nielsen argues, both positions can be rationally justified.[31][32][38]

Analytic Philosopher and modal logician Alvin Plantinga, a theist, rejected the presumption of atheism forwarding a two-part argument. First, he shows that there is no objection to belief in God unless the belief is shown to be false. Second, he argues that belief in God could be rationally warranted if it is a properly basic or foundational belief through an innate human "sense of the divine".[23] Plantinga argues that if we have the innate knowledge of God which he theorizes as a possibility, we could trust belief in God the same way we trust our cognitive faculties in other similar matters, such as our rational belief that there are other minds beyond our own, something we believe, but for which there can be no evidence. Alvin Plantinga's argument puts theistic belief an equal evidential footing with atheism even if Flew's definition of atheism is accepted.[32]

University of Notre Dame Philosopher Ralph McInerny goes further than Plantinga arguing that belief in God reasonably follows from our observations of the natural order and the law-like character of natural events. McInerny argues that the extent of this natural order is so pervasive as to be almost innate, providing a prima facie argument against atheism. McInerny's position goes further than Plantinga's arguing that theism is evidenced and that the burden of proof rests on the atheist, not on the theist.[32][39]

Analytic Philosopher William Lane Craig
Theoretical Philosopher William Lane Craig is a well-known critic of atheist philosophies.

The Analytic Philosopher William Lane Craig wrote that if Flew's broader definition of atheism is seen as  "merely the absence of belief in God", atheism "ceases to be a view" and even infants count as atheists." For atheism to be a view, Craig adds, "One would still require justification in order to know either that God exists or that He does not exist."[23] 

Like the agnostic Anthony Kenny, Craig  argues that there is no presumption for atheism because it is distinct from agnosticism:

such an alleged presumption is clearly mistaken. For the assertion that "There is no God" is just as much a claim to knowledge as is the assertion that "There is a God."  Therefore, the former assertion requires justification just as the latter does.  It is the agnostic who makes no knowledge claim at all with respect to God's existence."[40]
— Excerpt from Definition of Atheism by William Lane Craig, 2007

Forty years after Flew published The Presumption of Atheism, his proposition remains controversial.

Other arguments

Analytic philosopher William Lane Craig listed some of the more prominent arguments forwarded by proponents of atheism along with his objections:[41]

T.J. Mawson makes a case against atheism by citing some lines of evidence and reasoning such as the high level of fine-tuning whereby the life of morally sentient and significantly free creatures like humans has implications. On the maximal multiverse hypothesis, he argues that in appealing to infinite universes one is in essence explaining too much and that it even opens up the possibility that certain features of the universe still would require explanation beyond the hypothesis itself. He also argues from induction for fine tuning in that if one supposed that infinite universes existed there should be infinite ways in which observations can be wrong on only one way in which observations can be right at any point in time, for instance, that the color of gems stay the same every time we see them. In other words, if infinite universes existed, then there should be infinite changes to our observations of the universe and in essence be unpredictable in infinite ways, yet this is not what occurs.[42]

Atheism and the individual

In a global study on atheism, sociologist Phil Zuckerman noted that though there are positive correlations with societal health among organically atheist nations, countries with higher levels of atheism also had the highest suicide rates compared to countries with lower levels of atheism. He concludes that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation in either case.[43] A 2004 study of religious affiliation and suicide attempts, concluded: "After other factors were controlled, it was found that greater moral objections to suicide and lower aggression level in religiously affiliated subjects may function as protective factors against suicide attempts."[44]

According to William Bainbridge, atheism is common among people whose social obligations are weak and is also connected to lower fertility rates in some industrial nations.[45] Extended length of sobriety in alcohol recovery is related positively to higher levels of theistic belief, active community helping, and self-transcendence.[46] Some studies state that in developed countries, health, life expectancy, and other correlates of wealth, tend to be statistical predictors of a greater percentage of atheists, compared to countries with higher proportions of believers.[47][48] Multiple methodological problems have been identified with cross-national assessments of religiosity, secularity, and social health which undermine conclusive statements on religiosity and secularity in developed democracies.[49]

Morality

The liberal philosopher John Locke believed that the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos.

The influential deist philosopher Voltaire criticised established religion to a wide audience, but conceded a fear of the disappearance of the idea of God: "After the French Revolution and its outbursts of atheism, Voltaire was widely condemned as one of the causes", wrote Geoffrey Blainey, "Nonetheless, his writings did concede that fear of God was an essential policeman in a disorderly world: 'If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him', wrote Voltaire".[50]

In A Letter Concerning Toleration, the influential English philosopher John Locke wrote that "Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human society, can have no hold upon an atheist. The taking away of God, though but even in thought, dissolves all...".[51] Although Locke was believed to be an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism, because the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos.[52] According to Conservative intellectual Dinesh D'Souza, Locke, like the great Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky after him, argued that "when God is excluded, then it is not surprising when morality itself is sacrificed in the process and chaos and horror is unleashed on the world".[53]

The Catholic Church believes that morality is ensured through natural law, but that religion provides a more solid foundation.[54] For many years in the United States, atheists were not allowed to testify in court because it was believed that an atheist would have no reason to tell the truth (see also discrimination against atheists).[55]

Atheists such as biologist and popular author Richard Dawkins have proposed that human morality is a result of evolutionary, sociobiological history. He proposes that the "moral zeitgeist" helps describe how moral imperatives and values naturalistically evolve over time from biological and cultural origins.[56] Evolutionary biologist Kenneth R. Miller notes that such a conception of evolution and morality is a misunderstanding of sociobiology and at worst it is an attempt to abolish any meaningful system of morality since though evolution would have provided the biological drives and desires we have, it does not tell us what is good or right or wrong or moral.[57]

Critics assert that natural law provides a foundation on which people may build moral rules to guide their choices and regulate society, but does not provide as strong a basis for moral behavior as a morality that is based in religion.[58] Douglas Wilson, an evangelical theologian, argues that while atheists can behave morally, belief is necessary for an individual "to give a rational and coherent account" of why they are obligated to lead a morally responsible life.[59] Wilson says that atheism is unable to "give an account of why one deed should be seen as good and another as evil" (emphasis in original).[60] Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, outgoing Archbishop of Westminster, expressed this position by describing a lack of faith as "the greatest of evils" and blamed atheism for war and destruction, implying that it was a "greater evil even than sin itself."[61]

Atheism as faith

Further information: Secular religion and nontheistic religions

Another criticism of atheism is that it is a faith in itself, as a belief in its own right, with a certainty about the falseness of religious beliefs that is comparable to the certainty about the unknown that is practiced by religions.[62] Activist atheists, in particular, have been criticized for positions said to be similar to religious dogmata. In his essay Dogmatic Atheism and Scientific Ignorance for the World Union of Deists, Peter Murphy wrote "The dogmatic atheist like the dogmatic theist is obsessed with conformity and will spew a tirade of angry words against anyone who does not conform to their own particular world view."[63] The Times arts and entertainment writer, Ian Johns, described the 2006 British documentary, The Trouble with Atheism, as "reiterating the point that the dogmatic intensity of atheists is the secular equivalent of the blinkered zeal of fanatical mullahs and biblical fundamentalists".[64]

In a study on American secularity, Frank Pasquale notes that some tensions do exist among secular groups where, for instance, atheists are sometimes viewed as "fundamentalists" by secular humanists.[65]

In his book First Principles (1862), the 19th-century English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer wrote that, as regards the origin of the universe, three hypotheses are possible: self-existence (atheism), self-creation (pantheism), or creation by an external agency (theism).[66] Spencer argued that it is "impossible to avoid making the assumption of self-existence" in any of the three hypotheses,[67] and concluded that "even positive Atheism comes within the definition" of religion.[68]

Talal Asad, in an anthropological study on modernity, quotes an Arab atheist named Adonis who has said, "The sacred for atheism is the human being himself, the human being of reason, and there is nothing greater than this human being. It replaces revelation by reason and God with humanity." To which Asad points out, "But an atheism that deifies Man is, ironically, close to the doctrine of the incarnation."[69]

Michael Martin and Paul Edwards have responded to criticism-as-faith by emphasizing that atheism can be the rejection of belief, or absence of belief.[70][71] Don Hirschberg once famously said "calling atheism a religion is like calling bald a hair color."[72]

Catholic perspective

The Catechism of the Catholic Church identifies atheism as a violation of the First Commandment, calling it "a sin against the virtue of religion". The catechism is careful to acknowledge that atheism may be motivated by virtuous or moral considerations, and admonishes Catholic Christians to focus on their own role in encouraging atheism by their religious or moral shortcomings:

(2125) [...] The imputability of this offense can be significantly diminished in virtue of the intentions and the circumstances. "Believers can have more than a little to do with the rise of atheism. To the extent that they are careless about their instruction in the faith, or present its teaching falsely, or even fail in their religious, moral, or social life, they must be said to conceal rather than to reveal the true nature of God and of religion.[73]

Historical criticism

Edmund Burke wrote that atheism is against human reason and instinct.

The Bible has criticized atheism by stating "The fool has said in his heart, There is no God. They are corrupt, they have done abominable works, there is none that does good." (Psalm 14:1). Francis Bacon in his essay On Atheism criticized the dispositions towards atheism as being "contrary to wisdom and moral gravity" and being associated with fearing government or public affairs.[74] He also stated that knowing a little science may lead one to atheism, but knowing more science will lead one to religion.[74] In another work called The Advancement of Learning, Bacon stated that superficial knowledge of philosophy inclines one to atheism while more knowledge of philosophy inclines one toward religion.[74]

In Reflections on the Revolution in France, Edmund Burke, a 19th-century Irish philosopher and statesman praised by both his conservative and liberal peers for his "comprehensive intellect",[75] wrote that "man is by his constitution a religious animal; that atheism is against, not only our reason, but our instincts; and that it cannot prevail long". Burke wrote of a "literary cabal" who had "some years ago formed something like a regular plan for the destruction of the Christian religion. This object they pursued with a degree of zeal which hitherto had been discovered only in the propagators of some system of piety... These atheistical fathers have a bigotry of their own; and they have learnt to talk against monks with the spirit of a monk." In turn, wrote Burke, a spirit of atheistic fanaticism had emerged in France.[76]

We know, and, what is better, we feel inwardly, that religion is the basis of civil society, and the source of all good, and of all comfort. In England we are so convinced of this [...] We know, and it is our pride to know, that man is by his constitution a religious animal; that atheism is against, not only our reason, but our instincts; and that it cannot prevail long. But if, in the moment of riot, and in a drunken delirium from the hot spirit drawn out of the alembic of hell, which in France is now so furiously boiling, we should uncover our nakedness, by throwing off that Christian religion which has hitherto been our boast and comfort, and one great source of civilization amongst us, and among many other nations, we are apprehensive (being well aware that the mind will not endure a void) that some uncouth, pernicious, and degrading superstition might take place of it.
— Excerpt from Reflections on the Revolution in France, by Edmund Burke, 1790

Atheism and politics

The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that during the twentieth century, atheists in Western societies became more active and even militant, expressing their arguments with clarity and skill. Like modern Christians, they reject the idea of an interventionist God, and they argue that Christianity promotes war and violence. Blainey notes, however, that anyone, not just Christians, can promote violence, writing, "that the most ruthless leaders in the Second World War were atheists and secularists who were intensely hostile to both Judaism and Christianity. Later massive atrocities were committed in the East by those ardent atheists, Pol Pot and Mao Zedong. All religions, all ideologies, all civilizations display embarrassing blots on their pages."[77]

Philosophers Russell Blackford and Udo Schüklenk have written, "By contrast to all of this, the Soviet Union was undeniably and atheist state, and the same applies to Maoist China and Pol Pot's fanatical Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in the 1970s. That does not, however, show that the atrocities committed by these totalitarian dictatorships were all the result of atheist beliefs, carried out in the name of atheism, or caused primarily by the atheistic aspects of the relevant forms of communism." However, they do admit that some forms of persecutions such as those done on churches and religious people were partially related to atheism, but insist it was mostly based on economics and political reasons.[78]

However, William Husband, a historian of the soviet secularization has noted, "But the cultivation of atheism in Soviet Russia also possessed distinct characteristic, none more important than the most obvious: atheism was an integral part of the world's first large-scale experiment in communism. The promotion of an antireligious society therefore constitutes an important development in Soviet Russia and in the social history of atheism globally."[79]

Daniel Piers, a historian of the League of the Militant Godless which was a "nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism" in the Soviet Union notes that its pro-atheism activities included active proselytizing of people's personal beliefs, sponsoring lectures, organizing demonstrations, printing and distribution of pamphlets and posters, etc.[80]

Early twentieth century

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow during its 1931 demolition. Marxist‒Leninist atheism and other adaptations of Marxian thought on religion have enjoyed the official patronage of various one-party Communist states.

In Julian Baggini's book Atheism A Very Short Introduction, the author notes that "One of the most serious charges laid against atheism is that it is responsible for some of the worst horrors of the 20th century, including the Nazi concentration camps and Stalin's gulags".[81] The author concludes however that Nazi Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state," but one which sacrilized notions of blood and nation in a way that is "foreign to mainstream rational atheism", and that while the Soviet Union, which was "avowedly and officially an atheist state", this is not a reason to think that atheism is necessarily evil, though it is a refutation of the idea that atheism must always be benign: "there is I believe a salutary lesson to be learned from the way in which atheism formed an essential part of Soviet Communism, even though Communism does not form an essential part of atheism. This lesson concerns what can happen when atheism becomes too militant and Enlightenment ideals too optimistic."[82]

From the outset, Christians were critical of the spread of militant Marxist‒Leninist atheism, which took hold in Russia following the 1917 Revolution, and involved a systematic effort to eradicate religion.[83][84][85][86] In the USSR after the Revolution, the teaching the faith to the young was criminalized.[85] Marxist‒Leninist atheism and other adaptations of Marxian thought on religion have enjoyed the official patronage of various one-party Communist states since 1917. The Bolsheviks pursued "militant atheism".[87] The Soviet leaders Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin energetically pursued the persecution of the Church through the 1920s and 1930s.[86] It was made a criminal offence for priests to teach a child the faith.[88] Many priests were killed and imprisoned. Thousands of churches were closed, some turned into temples of atheism. In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution.[88]

Pope Pius XI reigned during the rise of the dictators in the 1930s. His 1937 encyclical Divini redemptoris denounced the "current trend to atheism which is alarmingly on the increase".

Pope Pius XI reigned from 1922 to 1939 and responded to the rise of Totalitarianism in Europe with alarm. He issued three papal encyclicals challenging the new creeds: against Italian Fascism, Non abbiamo bisogno (1931; 'We do not need to acquaint you); against Nazism, "Mit brennender Sorge" (1937; 'With deep concern'); and against atheist Communism, Divini redemptoris (1937; 'Divine Redeemer').[89]

In Divini Redemptoris, Pius XI said that atheistic Communism being led by Moscow was aimed at "upsetting the social order and at undermining the very foundations of Christian civilization":[90]

A picture saying, "Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth". Vladimir Lenin was a significant figure in the spread of political atheism in the 20th century. The figure of a priest is among the enemies being swept away.
We too have frequently and with urgent insistence denounced the current trend to atheism which is alarmingly on the increase... We raised a solemn protest against the persecutions unleashed in Russia, in Mexico and now in Spain. [...] In such a doctrine, as is evident, there is no room for the idea of God; there is no difference between matter and spirit, between soul and body; there is neither survival of the soul after death nor any hope in a future life. Insisting on the dialectical aspect of their materialism, the Communists claim that the conflict which carries the world towards its final synthesis can be accelerated by man. Hence they endeavor to sharpen the antagonisms which arise between the various classes of society. Thus the class struggle with its consequent violent hate and destruction takes on the aspects of a crusade for the progress of humanity. On the other hand, all other forces whatever, as long as they resist such systematic violence, must be annihilated as hostile to the human race.
— Excerpts from Divini Redemptoris (1937), by Pope Pius XI

In Fascist Italy, led by the atheist Benito Mussolini, the Pope denounced the efforts of the State to supplant the role of the Church as chief educator of youth, and denounced Fascism's "worship" of the state, rather than the divine, but Church and State settled on mutual, shaky, toleration.[91][92]

Historian of the Nazi period Richard J. Evans wrote that the Nazis encouraged atheism and deism over Christianity, and encouraged party functionaries to abandon their religion.[93] Priests were watched closely and frequently denounced, arrested and sent to concentration camps.[94] In Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, the historian Allan Bullock wrote that Hitler, like Napoleon before him, frequently employed the language of "Providence" in defence of his own myth, but ultimately shared with the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, "the same materialist outlook, based on the nineteenth century rationalists' certainty that the progress of science would destroy all myths and had already proved Christian doctrine to be an absurdity".[84] By 1939 all Catholic denominational schools in the Third Reich had been disbanded or converted to public facilities.[95] In this climate, Pope Pius XI issued his anti-Nazi encyclical, Mit Brennender Sorge, in 1937, saying:[96]

It is on faith in God, preserved pure and stainless, that man's morality is based. All efforts to remove from under morality and the moral order the granite foundation of faith and to substitute for it the shifting sands of human regulations, sooner or later lead these individuals or societies to moral degradation. The fool who has said in his heart "there is no God" goes straight to moral corruption (Psalms xiii. 1), and the number of these fools who today are out to sever morality from religion, is legion.
— Excerpt from Mit brennender Sorge (1937) by Pope Pius XI

Pius XI died on the eve of World War Two. Following the outbreak of war and the 1939 Nazi/Soviet joint invasion of Poland, the newly elected Pope Pius XII again denounced the eradication of religious education in his first encyclical, saying "Perhaps the many who have not grasped the importance of the educational and pastoral mission of the Church will now understand better her warnings, scouted in the false security of the past. No defense of Christianity could be more effective than the present straits. From the immense vortex of error and anti-Christian movements there has come forth a crop of such poignant disasters as to constitute a condemnation surpassing in its conclusiveness any merely theoretical refutation."[97]

Post-war Christian leaders including Pope John Paul II continued the Christian critique.[98] In 2010, his successor, the German Pope Benedict XVI said:[99]

Even in our own lifetime, we can recall how Britain and her leaders stood against a Nazi tyranny that wished to eradicate God from society and denied our common humanity to many, especially the Jews, who were thought unfit to live. I also recall the regime's attitude to Christian pastors and religious who spoke the truth in love, opposed the Nazis and paid for that opposition with their lives. As we reflect on the sobering lessons of the atheist extremism of the twentieth century, let us never forget how the exclusion of God, religion and virtue from public life leads ultimately to a truncated vision of man and of society and thus to a "reductive vision of the person and his destiny
— Speech by Pope Benedict XVI, Britain, 2010

British biologist Richard Dawkins criticised Pope Benedict's remarks and described Hitler as a "Catholic" because he "never renounced his baptismal Catholicism", and said that "Hitler certainly was not an atheist. In 1933 he claimed to have 'stamped atheism out'..."[100] Historian Alan Bullock, in contrast, wrote that Hitler was a rationalist and a materialist with no feeling for the spiritual or emotional side of human existence: a "man who believed neither in God nor in conscience".[101] Anton Gill has written that Hitler wanted Catholicism to have "nothing at all to do with German society".[102] Richard Overy describes Hitler as skeptical of all religious belief[103][104] Critic of atheism Dinesh D'Souza argues that "Hitler's leading advisers, such as Goebbels, Heydrich and Bormann, were atheists who were savagely hostile to religion" and Hitler and the Nazis "repudiated what they perceived as the Christian values of equality, compassion and weakness and extolled the atheist notions of the Nietzschean superman and a new society based on the 'will to power'."[53]

Yet, when Hitler was out campaigning for power in Germany, he made opportunistic statements apparently in favour of "Positive Christianity".[105][106][107] In political speeches, Hitler spoke of an "almighty creator".[108][109] and, according to Samuel Koehne of Deakin University, some recent works have "argued Hitler was a Deist".[110] Hitler made various comments against "atheistic" movements. He associated atheism with Bolshevism, Communism, and Jewish materialism.[111] In 1933, the regime banned most atheistic and freethinking groups in Germany—other than those that supported the Nazis.[112][113] The regime strongly opposed "godless communism"[114][115] and most of Germany's freethinking (freigeist), atheist, and largely left-wing organizations were banned.[112][113] And the regime stated that the Nazi Germany needed some kind of belief.[116][117][118][119]

According to Tom Rees, some researches suggest that atheists are more numerous in peaceful nations than they are in turbulent or warlike ones, but causality of this trend is not clear and there are many outliers.[120] However, opponents of this view cite examples such as the Bolsheviks (in Soviet Russia) who were inspired by "an ideological creed which professed that all religion would atrophy ... resolved to eradicate Christianity as such".[121] In 1918 "[t]en Orthodox hierarchs were summarily shot" and "[c]hildren were deprived of any religious education outside the home."[121] Increasingly draconian measures were employed. In addition to direct state persecution, the League of the Militant Godless was founded in 1925, churches were closed and vandalized and "by 1938 eighty bishops had lost their lives, while thousands of clerics were sent to labour camps."[122]

After World War II

Across Eastern Europe following World War Two, the parts of Nazi Germany and its allies and conquered states that had been overrun by the Soviet Red Army, along with Yugoslavia, became one-party Communist states, which, like the Soviet Union, were antipathetic to religion. Persecutions of religious leaders followed.[123][124] The Soviet Union ended its truce against the Russian Orthodox Church, and extended its persecutions to the newly Communist Eastern block: "In Poland, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the Communists. According to Geoffrey Blainey, leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in Romania and Bulgaria had to be "cautious and submissive".[88]

Albania under Enver Hoxha became, in 1967, the first (and to date only) formally declared atheist state,[125] going far beyond what most other countries had attempted – completely prohibiting religious observance, and systematically repressing and persecuting adherents. The right to religious practice was restored in the fall of communism in 1991. In 1967, Enver Hoxha's regime conducted a campaign to extinguish religious life in Albania; by year's end over two thousand religious buildings were closed or converted to other uses, and religious leaders were imprisoned and executed. Albania was declared to be the world's first atheist country by its leaders, and Article 37 of the Albanian constitution of 1976 stated that "The State recognises no religion, and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people."[126][127]

Mao Zedong with Joseph Stalin in 1949. Both leaders repressed religion and established state atheism throughout their respective Communist spheres.
Nicolae Ceauşescu with Pol Pot in 1978. Ceauşescu launched a persecution of religion in Romania to implement the doctrine of Marxist–Leninist atheism, while Pol Pot banned religious practices in Cambodia.

In 1949, China became a Communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China. China itself had been a cradle of religious thought since ancient times, being the birthplace of Confucianism and Daoism. Under Communism, China became officially atheist, and though some religious practices were permitted to continue under State supervision, religious groups deemed a threat to order have been suppressed - as with Tibetan Buddhism since 1959 and Falun Gong in recent years.[128] During the Cultural Revolution, Mao instigated "struggles" against the Four Olds: "old ideas, customs, culture, and habits of mind".[129] In Buddhist Cambodia, influenced by Mao's Cultural Revolution, Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge also instigated a purge of religion during the Cambodian Genocide, when all religious practices were forbidden and Buddhist monasteries were closed.[130][131] Evangelical Christian writer Dinesh D'Souza writes that "The crimes of atheism have generally been perpetrated through a hubristic ideology that sees man, not God, as the creator of values. Using the latest techniques of science and technology, man seeks to displace God and create a secular utopia here on earth."[132] He also contends:

And who can deny that Stalin and Mao, not to mention Pol Pot and a host of others, all committed atrocities in the name of a Communist ideology that was explicitly atheistic? Who can dispute that they did their bloody deeds by claiming to be establishing a 'new man' and a religion-free utopia? These were mass murders performed with atheism as a central part of their ideological inspiration, they were not mass murders done by people who simply happened to be atheist.[133]

In response to this line of criticism, Sam Harris wrote:

The problem with fascism and communism, however, is not that they are too critical of religion; the problem is that they are too much like religions. Such regimes are dogmatic to the core and generally give rise to personality cults that are indistinguishable from cults of religious hero worship. Auschwitz, the gulag and the killing fields were not examples of what happens when human beings reject religious dogma; they are examples of political, racial and nationalistic dogma run amok. There is no society in human history that ever suffered because its people became too reasonable.[134]

Richard Dawkins has stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism,[56] and concludes that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds "in the name of atheism".[135] On other occasions, Dawkins has replied to the argument that Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin were antireligious with the response that Hitler and Stalin also grew moustaches, in an effort to show the argument as fallacious.[136] Instead, Dawkins argues in The God Delusion that "What matters is not whether Hitler and Stalin were atheists, but whether atheism systematically influences people to do bad things. There is not the smallest evidence that it does."[137] D'Souza responds that an individual need not explicitly invoke atheism in committing atrocities if it is already implied in his worldview, as is the case in Marxism.[133]

In a 1993 address to American bishops, Pope John Paul II spoke of a spreading "practical atheism" in modern societies which was clouding the moral sense of humans, and fragmenting society:[4]

[T]he disciple of Christ is constantly challenged by a spreading "practical atheism" – an indifference to God's loving plan which obscures the religious and moral sense of the human heart. Many either think and act as if God did not exist, or tend to "privatize" religious belief and practice, so that there exists a bias towards indifferentism and the elimination of any real reference to binding truths and moral values. When the basic principles which inspire and direct human behavior are fragmentary and even at times contradictory, society increasingly struggles to maintain harmony and a sense of its own destiny. In a desire to find some common ground on which to build its programmes and policies, it tends to restrict the contribution of those whose moral conscience is formed by their religious beliefs.
— Pope John Paul II, 11 November 1993

Journalist Robert Wright has argued that some New Atheists discourage looking for deeper root causes of conflicts when they assume that religion is the sole root of the problem. Wright argues that this can discourage people from working to change the circumstances that actually give rise to those conflicts.[138] Mark Chaves has said that the New Atheists, amongst others who comment on religions, have committed the religious congruence fallacy in their writings, by assuming that beliefs and practices remain static and coherent through time. He believes that the late Christopher Hitchens committed this error by assuming that the drive for congruence is a defining feature of religion, and that Dennett has done it by overlooking the fact that religious actions are dependent on the situation, just like other actions.[139]

Atheism and science

Early modern atheism developed in the 17th century, and Winfried Schroeder, a historian of atheism, has noted that science during this time did not strengthen the case for atheism.[140][141] In the 18th century, Denis Diderot argued that atheism was less scientific than metaphysics.[140][141] Prior to Darwin, the findings of biology did not play a major part in the atheist's arguments since, in the earliest avowedly atheist texts, atheists were embarrassed to an appeal to chance against the available arguments for design. As Schroeder has noted, throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries theists excelled atheists in their ability to make contributions to the serious study of biological processes.[141] In the time of the Enlightenment, mechanical philosophy was developed by Christians such as Newton, Descartes, Boyle, and Gassendi who saw a self-sustained and autonomous universe as an intrinsically Christian belief. The mechanical world was seen as providing strong evidence against atheism since nature had evidence of order and providence, instead of chaos and spontaneity.[142] However, since the 19th century, both atheists and theists have said that science supports their worldviews.[140] Historian of science John Henry has noted that before the 19th century, science was generally cited to support many theological positions. However, materialist theories in natural philosophy became more prominent from the 17th century onwards, giving more room for atheism to develop. Since the 19th century, science has been employed in both theistic and atheistic cultures, depending on the prevailing popular beliefs.[143]

Taner Edis in reviewing the rise of modern science notes that science does work without atheism and that atheism largely remains a position that is adopted for philosophical or ethical, rather than scientific reasons. The history of atheism is heavily invested in the philosophy of religion and this has resulted in atheism being weakly tied to other branches of philosophy and almost completely disconnected from science which means that it risks becoming stagnant and completely irrelevant to science.[144]

Sociologist Steve Fuller wrote that "...Atheism as a positive doctrine has done precious little for science." He notes, "More generally, Atheism has not figured as a force in the history of science not because it has been suppressed but because whenever it has been expressed, it has not specifically encouraged the pursuit of science."[145]

Massimo Pigliucci noted that the Soviet Union had adopted an atheist ideology called Lysenkoism, which rejected Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution as capitalist propaganda, which was in sync with Stalin's dialectic materialism and ultimately impeded biological and agricultural research for many years, including the exiling and deaths of many valuable scientists. This part of history has symmetries with other ideologically driven ideas such as Intelligent Design, though in both cases religion and atheism are not the main cause, but blind commitments to worldviews.[146] Lysenkoism reigned over Soviet science since the 1920s to the early 1960s where genetics was proclaimed a pseudo-science for more than 30 years despite significant advances in genetics in earlier years. It relied on Lamarckian views and rejected concepts such as genes and chromosomes and proponents claimed to have discovered that rye could transform into wheat and wheat into barley and that natural cooperation was observed in nature as opposed to natural selection, Ultimately, Lysenkoism failed to deliver on its promises in agricultural yields and had unfortunate consequences such as the arresting, firing, or execution of 3,000 biologists due to attempts from Lysenko to suppress opposition to his theory.[147]

According to historian Geoffrey Blainey, in recent centuries, literalist biblical accounts of creation were undermined by scientific discoveries in geology and biology, leading various thinkers to question the idea that God created the universe all.[148] However, he notes that "Other scholars replied that the universe was so astonishing, so systematic, and so varied that it must have a divine maker. Criticisms of the accuracy of the Book of Genesis were therefore illuminating, but minor".[148] Some philosophers, such as Alvin Plantinga, began argued the universe was fine-tuned for life.[149] Atheists have sometimes responded by referring to the anthropic principle.[150][151]

British mathematician and philosopher of science John Lennox.

Physicist Karl W. Giberson and philosopher of science Mariano Artigas reviewed the views of some notable atheist scientists such as Sagan, Dawkins, Gould, Hawking, Weinberg, and Wilson which have engaged popular writing which include commentary on what science is, society and religion for the lay public. Giberson and Artigas note that though such authors provide insights from their fields, they often misinform the public by engaging in non-scientific commentary on society, religion and meaning under the guise of non-existent scientific authority and no scientific evidence. Some impressions these six authors make, that are erroneous and false, include: science is mainly about origins and that most scientists work in some aspect of either cosmic or biological evolution, scientists are either agnostic or atheistic, and science is incompatible and even hostile to religion. To these impressions, Giberson and Artigas note that the overwhelming majority of science articles in any journal in any field have nothing to with origins because most research is funded by taxpayers or private corporations so ultimately practical research that benefit people, the environment, health, and technology are the core focus of science; significant portions of scientists are religious and spiritual, and the majority of scientists are not hostile to religion since no scientific organization has any stance that is critical to religion, the scientific community is diverse in terms of worldviews and there is no collective opinion on religion.[152]

Primatologist Frans de Waal has criticized atheists for often presenting science and religion to audiences in a simplistic and false view of conflict, thereby propagating a myth that has been dispelled by history. He notes that there are dogmatic parallels between atheists and some religious people in terms of how they argue about many issues.[153]

Evolutionary biologist Kenneth R. Miller has argued that when scientists make claims on science and theism or atheism, they are not arguing scientifically at all and are stepping beyond the scope of science into discourses of meaning and purpose. What he finds particularly odd and unjustified is in how atheists often come to invoke scientific authority on their non-scientific philosophical conclusions like there being no point or no meaning to the universe as the only viable option when the scientific method and science never have had any way of addressing questions of meaning or lack of meaning, the existence or non-existence of God or in the first place. Atheists do the same thing theists do on issues not pertaining to science like questions on God and meaning.[154]

Theologian-scientist Alister McGrath points out that atheists have misused biology in terms of both evolution as "Darwinism" and Charles Darwin himself, in their "atheist apologetics" in order to propagate and defend their worldviews. He notes that in atheist writings there is often an implicit appeal to an outdated "conflict" model of science and religion which has been discredited by historical scholarship, there is a tendency to go beyond science to make non-scientific claims like lack of purpose, and characterizing Darwin as if he was an atheist and his ideas as promoting atheism. McGrath notes that Darwin never called himself an atheist nor did he, and other early advocates of evolution, see his ideas as propagating atheism and that numerous contributors to evolutionary biology were Christians.[155]

Oxford Professor of Mathematics John Lennox has written that the issues one hears about science and religion have nothing to do with science, but are merely about theism and atheism because top level scientists abound on both sides. Furthermore, he criticizes atheists who argue from scientism because sometimes it results in dismissals of things like philosophy based on ignorance of what philosophy entails and the limits of science. He also notes that atheist scientists, in trying to avoid the visible evidence for God, they ascribe creative power to less credible candidates like mass and energy, the laws of nature, and theories of those laws. Lennox notes that theories that Stephen Hawking appeals to, such as multiverse are speculative and untestable and thus do not amount to science.[156]

Francis Collins, American physician-geneticist.

Physicist Paul Davies of Arizona State University has written that the very notion of physical law is a theological one in the first place: "Isaac Newton first got the idea of absolute, universal, perfect, immutable laws from the Christian doctrine that God created the world and ordered it in a rational way."[157] John Lennox has argued that science itself sits more comfortably with theism than with atheism: "as a scientist I would say... where did modern science come from? It didn't come from atheism... modern science arose in the 16th and 17th centuries in Western Europe, and of course people ask why did it happen there and then, and the general consensus which is often called Merton's Thesis is, to quote CS Lewis who formulated it better than anybody I know... 'Men became scientific. Why? Because they expected law in nature, and they expected law in nature because they believed in a lawgiver.' In other words, it was belief in God that was the motor that drove modern science."[158]

Francis Collins, the American physician and geneticist who lead the Human Genome Project argues that theism is more rational than atheism. Collins also found Lewis persuasive, and after reading Mere Christianity, came to believe that a rational person would be more likely to believe in a god. Collins argues "How is it that we, and all other members of our species, unique in the animal kingdom, know what's right and what's wrong... I reject the idea that that is an evolutionary consequence, because that moral law sometimes tells us that the right thing to do is very self-destructive. If I'm walking down the riverbank, and a man is drowning, even if I don't know how to swim very well, I feel this urge that the right thing to do is to try to save that person. Evolution would tell me exactly the opposite: preserve your DNA. Who cares about the guy who's drowning? He's one of the weaker ones, let him go. It's your DNA that needs to survive. And yet that's not what's written within me".[159]

Richard Dawkins addresses this criticism by showing that the evolutionary process can account for the development of altruistic traits in organisms.[160] However, molecular biologist Kenneth R. Miller argues that Dawkin's conception of evolution and morality is a misunderstanding of sociobiology since though evolution would have provided the biological drives and desires we have, it does not tell us what is good or right or wrong or moral.[57]

New Atheism

In the early 21st Century, a group of authors and media personalities in Britain and the United States - often referred to as the "New Atheists" - have argued that religion must be proactively countered, criticized so as to reduce its influence on society. Prominent among these voices have been Christopher Hitchens, Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Bill Maher and Sam Harris.[161] Among those to critique their world view has been American-Iranian religious studies scholar Reza Aslan. Aslan argued that the New Atheists held an often comically simplistic view of religion which was giving atheism a bad name:[162]

This is not the philosophical atheism of Schopenhauer or Marx or Freud or Feuerbach. This is a sort of unthinking, simplistic religious criticism. It is primarily being fostered by individuals — like Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins — who have absolutely no background in the study of religion at all. Most of my intellectual heroes are atheists, but they were experts in religion, and so they were able to offer critiques of it that came from a place of knowledge, from a sophistication of education, of research. What we’re seeing now instead is a sort of armchair atheism — people who are inundated by what they see on the news or in media, and who then draw these incredibly simplistic generalizations about religion in general based on these examples that they see.
— Reza Azlan, 2014.

Professor of Anthropology and Sociology Jack David Eller believes that the four principal New Atheist authors - Hitchens, Dawkins, Dennett and Harris - were not offering anything new in terms of arguments to disprove the existence of gods. He also criticized them for their focus on the dangers of theism, as opposed to the falsifying of theism, which results in mischaracterizing religions; taking local theisms as the essence of religion itself, and for focusing on the negative aspects of religion in the form of an "argument from benefit" in the reverse.[163]

Professors of philosophy and religion, Jeffrey Robbins and Christopher Rodkey, take issue with "the evangelical nature of the new atheism, which assumes that it has a Good News to share, at all cost, for the ultimate future of humanity by the conversion of as many people as possible." They find similarities between the new atheism and evangelical Christianity and conclude that the all-consuming nature of both "encourages endless conflict without progress" between both extremities.[164] Sociologist William Stahl notes "What is striking about the current debate is the frequency with which the New Atheists are portrayed as mirror images of religious fundamentalists." He discusses where both have "structural and epistemological parallels" and argues that "both the New Atheism and fundamentalism are attempts to recreate authority in the face of crises of meaning in late modernity."[165]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Sagan, Carl (2006). Conversations with Carl Sagan. University Press of Mississippi. p. 70. ISBN 1-57806-736-7. An atheist is someone who is certain that God does not exist, someone who has compelling evidence against the existence of God. I know of no such compelling evidence. Because God can be relegated to remote times and places and to ultimate causes, we would have to know a great deal more about the universe than we do know to be sure that no such God exist
  2. ↑ D'Souza, Dinesh. "Atheism Masquerading As Science". Townhall. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
  3. ↑ Newton, Isaac. "A short Schem of the true Religion". The Newton Project. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
  4. 1 2 Address by Pope John Paul II to the Bishops of USA on their Ad Limina Visit, 28 May 1993
  5. ↑ http://www.chesterton.org/discover-chesterton/frequently-asked-questions/cease-to-worship/
  6. ↑ Simon Blackburn, ed. (2008). "atheism". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2008 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2011-12-05. Either the lack of belief that there exists a god, or the belief that there exists none.
  7. ↑ "atheism". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  8. ↑ Rowe, William L. (1998). "Atheism". In Edward Craig. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. Retrieved 2011-04-09. atheism is the position that affirms the nonexistence of God. So an atheist is someone who disbelieves in God, whereas a theist is someone who believes in God. Another meaning of "atheism" is simply nonbelief in the existence of God, rather than positive belief in the nonexistence of God. ...an atheist, in the broader sense of the term, is someone who disbelieves in every form of deity, not just the God of traditional Western theology.
  9. ↑
    • Nielsen, Kai (2011). "Atheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-12-06. for an anthropomorphic God, the atheist rejects belief in God because it is false or probably false that there is a God; for a nonanthropomorphic God... because the concept of such a God is either meaningless, unintelligible, contradictory, incomprehensible, or incoherent; for the God portrayed by some modern or contemporary theologians or philosophers... because the concept of God in question is such that it merely masks an atheistic substance—e.g., "God" is just another name for love, or ... a symbolic term for moral ideals.
    • Edwards, Paul (2005) [1967]. "Atheism". In Donald M. Borchert. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA (Gale). p. 359. ISBN 978-0-02-865780-6. an 'atheist' is a person who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not his reason for the rejection is the claim that 'God exists' expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other than that it is a false proposition. It is common among contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or capricious, and there are many other considerations which in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good grounds for rejecting an assertion.(page 175 in 1967 edition)
  10. ↑ "Definition of Deism". The American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved 12 September 2016. Deism: A religious belief holding that God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but does not intervene in human affairs through miracles or supernatural revelation.
  11. ↑ "www.deism.com". World Union of Deists. p. 1. Retrieved 12 September 2016. Deism is knowledge of God based on the application of our reason on the designs/laws found throughout Nature. The designs presuppose a Designer. Deism is therefore a natural religion and is not a "revealed" religion.
  12. ↑ Craig, William Lane (2006). Martin, Michael, ed. The Cambridge companion to atheism (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–85. ISBN 9780521842709.
  13. ↑ Flew, Anthony (1976). The Presumption of Atheism (PDF). Common Sense Atheism.
  14. ↑ Plantinga, Alvin (1983). God, freedom, and evil (Reprinted ed.). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802817310.
  15. ↑ Plantinga, Alvin (1993). Warrant: The Current Debate (PDF). 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195078619.
  16. ↑ Plantinga, Alvin (1993). Warrant and Proper Function. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195078640.
  17. ↑ Plantinga, Alvin (2000). Warranted Christian Belief. 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195131925.
  18. ↑ McBrayer, Justin (2015). "Sceptical theism". Rutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 10 October 2016. The sceptical element of sceptical theism can be used to undermine various arguments for atheism including both the argument from evil and the argument from divine hiddenness.
  19. 1 2 3 Flew, Anthony (1976). The Presumption of Atheism (PDF). Common Sense Atheism.
  20. 1 2 Crawly, William (16 April 2010). "Antony Flew: the atheist who changed his mind". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 September 2016. His books God and Philosophy (1966) and The Presumption of Atheism (1976) [Flew] made the case, now followed by today's new atheists, that atheism should be the intelligent person's default until well-established evidence to the contrary arises
  21. ↑ "Atheists, agnostics and theists". Is there a God?. Retrieved 28 September 2016. But it is common these days to find atheists who define the term to mean "without theism"... Many of them then go on to argue that this means that the "burden of proof" is on the theist...
  22. ↑ Day, Donn. "Atheism - Etymology". The Divine Conspiracy. Retrieved 28 September 2016. In the last twenty years or so atheists and theists have taken to debating on college campuses, and in town halls, all across this country. By using the above definition, atheists have attempted to shift the burden of proof.
  23. 1 2 3 Craig, William Lane (2007). Martin, Michael, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, pp. 69-85. Ed. M. Martin. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2007. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy. pp. 69–85. ISBN 9780521842709. [The Presumption of atheism is] One of the most commonly proffered justifications of atheism has been the so-called presumption of atheism.
  24. ↑ "Atheism; Atheistic Naturalism". Internet Encyclopedia of Atheism. Retrieved 26 September 2016. A notable modern view is Antony Flew's Presumption of Atheism (1984).
  25. ↑ Rauser, Randall (1 October 2012). "Atheist, meet Burden of Proof. Burden of Proof, meet Atheist.". The Tentative Apologist. Retrieved 27 September 2016. There are very many atheists who think they have no worldview to defend.
  26. ↑ Parsons, Keith M. (14 December 1997). "Do Atheists Bear a Burden of Proof?". The Secular Web. Retrieved 27 September 2016. The 'evidentialist challenge' is the gauntlet thrown down by atheist writers such as Antony Flew, Norwood Russell Hanson, and Michael Scriven. They argue that in debates over the existence of God, the burden of proof should fall on the theist. They contend that if theists are unable to provide cogent arguments for theism, i.e. arguments showing that it is at least more probable than not that God exists, then atheism wins by default.
  27. ↑ Antony, Michael. "The New Atheism, Where's The Evidence?". Philosophy Now. Retrieved 27 September 2016. Another familiar strategy of atheists is to insist that the burden of proof falls on the believer.
  28. ↑ Samples, Kenneth (Fall 1991). "Putting the Atheist on the Defensive". Christian Research Institute Journal. Retrieved 28 September 2016. When Christians and atheists engage in debate concerning the question, Does God exist? atheists frequently assert that the entire burden of proof rests on the Christian.
  29. ↑ "The burden of truth". Rational Razor. 20 July 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2016. Atheists tend to claim that the theist bears the burden of proof to justify the existence of God, whereas the theist tends to claim that both parties have an equal burden of proof.
  30. ↑ Playford, Richard (9 June 2013). "Atheism and the burden of proof". The Christian Apologetics Alliance. Retrieved 2 October 2016. In this article I will show that atheism is a belief about the world and that it does require a justification in the same way that theism does.
  31. 1 2 Nielsen, Kai (1985). Philosophy and Atheism: In Defense of Atheism. Prometheus Books. pp. 139–140. ISBN 9780879752897.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 Antony Flew; Roy Abraham Varghese (2007), There is a God: How the World's Most Notorious Atheist Changed His Mind, New York: Harper One, p. Part II, Chapter 3 Following the Evidence where it Leads, ASIN B0076O7KX8.
  33. ↑ Kenny, Anthony (1983). Faith and Reason. New York: Colombia University Press. p. 86. ASIN B000KTCLD0.
  34. ↑ Craig, William Lane. "Definition of atheism". Reasonable Faith. Certain atheists in the mid-twentieth century were promoting the so-called "presumption of atheism.
  35. ↑ Parsons, Keith (1989). God and the Burden of Proof: Plantinga, Swinburne, and the Analytical Defense of Theism. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-87975-551-5.
  36. ↑ Kenny, Anthony A. (2006). What I Believe. London & New York:: Continuum 0-8264-8971-0. pp. Chapter 3. ISBN 978-0826496164.
  37. ↑ "Modernizing the Case for God", Time, April 5, 1980
  38. ↑ Nielsen, Kai (1977). "Review of The Presumption of Atheism by Antony Flew". Religious Studies Review. 2 (July): 147.
  39. ↑ Parsons, Keith M. "Do Atheists Bear a Burden of Proof?". The Secular Web. Retrieved 27 September 2016. Prof. Ralph McInerny goes a step further to argue that the burden of proof should fall on the unbeliever. Here I shall rebut Prof. McInerny's claim and argue that, in the context of public debate over the truth of theism, theists cannot shirk a heavy burden of proof.
  40. ↑ Craig, William Lane (28 May 2007). "Definition of Atheism". Reasonable Faith. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
  41. ↑ William Lane Craig. "Theistic Critiques Of Atheism". Abridged from "The Cambridge Companion to Atheism".
  42. ↑ Mawson, T.J. (2013). "The Case Against Atheism". In Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael. The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198745079.
  43. ↑ Zuckerman, Phil (2007). Martin, Michael, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 0521603676.
  44. ↑ Dervic, Kanita; Oquendo, Maria A.; Grunebaum, Michael F.; Ellis, Steve; Burke, Ainsley K.; Mann, J. John (2004-12-01). "Religious Affiliation and Suicide Attempt". American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (12): 2303–2308. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2303. ISSN 0002-953X.
  45. ↑ Bainbridge, William (2005). "Atheism" (PDF). Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 1 (Article 2): 1–26.
  46. ↑ Zemore, SE; Kaskutas, LA (May 2004). "Helping, spirituality and Alcoholics Anonymous in recovery.". Journal of studies on alcohol. 65 (3): 383–91. doi:10.15288/jsa.2004.65.383. PMID 15222595.
  47. ↑ Paul, Gregory. 2002. The Secular Revolution of the West, Free Inquiry, Summer: 28–34
  48. ↑ Zuckerman, P. (2007). M. Martin, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Atheism (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-521-84270-0. In sum, with the exception of suicide, countries marked by high rates of organic atheism are among the most societally healthy on earth, while societies characterized by nonexistent rates of organic atheism are among the most unhealthy. Of course, none of the above correlations demonstrate that high levels of organic atheism cause societal health or that low levels of organic atheism cause societal ills. Rather, societal health seems to cause widespread atheism, and societal insecurity seems to cause widespread belief in God, as has been demonstrated by Norris and Inglehart (2004), mentioned above.
  49. ↑ Moreno-Riaño, Gerson; Smith, Mark Caleb; Mach, Thomas (2006). "Religiosity, Secularism, and Social Health" (PDF). Journal of Religion and Society. Cedarville University. 8.
  50. ↑ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; pp.390-391
  51. ↑ John Locke A LetterConcerning Toleration; Translated by William Popple
  52. ↑ Jeremy Waldron; God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought; Cambridge, UK; 2002; p.217
  53. 1 2 Dinesh D'Souza. "Answering Atheist's Arguments."; tothesource (December 6, 2006).
  54. ↑ Josef Cardinal Ratzinger, Marcello Pera, "Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam" (Basic Books, 0465006345, 2006).
  55. ↑ See, e.g., United States v. Miller, 236 F. 798, 799 (W.D. Wash., N.D. 1916) (citing Thurston v. Whitney et al., 2 Cush. (Mass.) 104; Jones on Evidence, Blue Book, vol. 4, §§ 712, 713) ("Under the common-law rule a person who does not believe in a God who is the rewarder of truth and the avenger of falsehood cannot be permitted to testify.")
  56. 1 2 Dawkins, Richard (2006-09-18). The God Delusion. Ch. 7: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9.
  57. 1 2 Miller, Kenneth R. (1999). Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 280. ISBN 9780060930493.
  58. ↑ "Where morality is divorced from religion, reason will, it is true, enable a man to recognize to a large extent the ideal to which his nature points. But much will be wanting. He will disregard some of his most essential duties. He will, further, be destitute of the strong motives for obedience to the law afforded by the sense of obligation to God and the knowledge of the tremendous sanction attached to its neglect – motives which experience has proved to be necessary as a safeguard against the influence of the passions. And, finally, his actions even if in accordance with the moral law, will be based not on the obligation imposed by the Divine will, but on considerations of human dignity and on the good of human society." Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Morality". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  59. ↑ Christopher Hitchens and Douglas Wilson, "Is Christianity Good for the World? Part 2" Christianity Today magazine (web only, May 2007) Archived December 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  60. ↑ Christopher Hitchens and Douglas Wilson, "Is Christianity Good for the World? Part 6" Christianity Today magazine (web only, May 2007) Archived December 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  61. ↑ Gledhill, Ruth (May 22, 2009). "Archbishop of Westminster attacks atheism but says nothing on child abuse". The Times (London). Archived from the original on November 15, 2010.
  62. ↑ David Limbaugh, "Does atheism require more faith?," Townhall.com, April 20, 2004
    • Stanley Fish, "Atheism and Evidence," Think Again, The New York Times, June 17, 2007
    • DHRUV K. SINGHAL, "The Church of Atheism,", The Harvard Crimson, December 14, 2008
    • Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist," Crossway Books, March 01, 2004, 447 Pages, ISBN 1-58134-561-5
    • John F. Haught, God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, Westminster John Knox Press, December 31, 2007, 156 pages, ISBN 978-0-664-23304-4, page 45
  63. ↑ Murphy, Peter. "Dogmatic Atheism and Scientific Ignorance". World Union of Deists. Retrieved 2 October 2016. The repeated arguments presented by atheists using science as evidence against the existence of God is erroneous -- and can be demonstrated such." and "This essay from this point will refer to active atheists as dogmatic atheists to better reflect their true mindset.
  64. ↑ Johns, Ian (2006). "Atheism gets a kick in the fundamentals". London: The Times. Archived from the original on March 19, 2007.
  65. ↑ Pasquale, Frank. "Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives". Hartford, CT: Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC), 2007. p. 46. "Some self-identified Atheists consequently distinguish between "positive" and "negative" forms. There is general regard among members of these groups as nonreligious comrades-in-arms. There is shared concern about misrepresentation or misunderstanding of nonreligious people, erosion of church-state separation, public and political influence of conservative religion, and aspects of American domestic and international policy. But there are also notes of irreligious sectarianism. In a meeting of secular humanists, one audience member proclaims, "We have our fundamentalists, too. They’re called Atheists." In an Atheist meeting across town, derisive asides make reference to "a lack of spine" or "going soft onreligion" among "the humanists." These groups struggle for public recognition and legitimacy.
  66. ↑ Spencer, Herbert (1862). First Principles. London: Williams and Norgate, pp. 30-35.
  67. ↑ Spencer, First Principles, p. 36.
  68. ↑ Spencer, First Principles, p. 43.
  69. ↑ Asad, Talal (2003). Formations of the Secular : Christianity, Islam, Modernity (10. printing. ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 0-8047-4768-7.
  70. ↑ Martin, Michael. 0-521-84270-0 The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-521-84270-0.
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  72. ↑ "Quotations : Atheism, Atheist. Quotes of Asimov, Allen, Buchan, Chesterton, Crisp, Goldman, Roberts, Rossetti, Santayana, Sartre, Vidal". Atheisme.free.fr. Retrieved 2012-06-09.
  73. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church, English version, section 3.2.1.1.3 Archived June 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  74. 1 2 3 Bacon, Francis (2002). The Major Works : Including New Atlantis and the Essays. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96, 125. ISBN 0-19-284081-9.
  75. ↑ O'Keeffe, Dennis (2010). Edmund Burke, Volume 6 of Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers. A&C Black. p. 93. ISBN 9781441194114. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
  76. ↑ Reflections on the Revolution in France; (1790) by Edmund Burke
  77. ↑ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.543
  78. ↑ 50 Great Myths About Atheism; Russell Blackford, Udo Schüklenk; John Wiley & Sons, 2013; Pgs. 85-90; 141-144; ISBN 9781118607817
  79. ↑ Husband, William B. (2003). "Introduction". Godless Communists: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia : 1917-1932. DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press. p. XII. ISBN 9780875805955.
  80. ↑ Peris, Daniel (1998). "Introduction". Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801434858.
  81. ↑ Julian Baggini; Atheism a Very Short Introduction; Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 85
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  86. 1 2 Martin Amis; Koba the Dread; Vintage; 2003
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  88. 1 2 3 Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.494
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  97. ↑ Summi Pontificatus, Encyclical of Pope Pius XII on the Unity of Human Society Archived July 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.; 20 October 1939
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  110. ↑ Hitler's faith: The debate over Nazism and religion; Samuel Koehne; ABC Religion and Ethics; 18 Apr 2012
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  112. 1 2 Bock, Heike (2006). "Secularization of the modern conduct of life? Reflections on the religiousness of early modern Europe". In Hanne May. Religiosität in der säkularisierten Welt. VS Verlag fnr Sozialw. p. 157. ISBN 3-8100-4039-8.
  113. 1 2 Kaiser, Jochen-Christoph (2003). Christel Gärtner, ed. Atheismus und religiöse Indifferenz. Organisierter Atheismus. VS Verlag. pp. 122, 124–6. ISBN 978-3-8100-3639-1.
  114. ↑ Smith, Christian (1996). Disruptive religion: the force of faith in social-movement activism. Routledge. pp. 156–57. ISBN 978-0-415-91405-5.
  115. ↑ Stackelberg, Roderick (2007). The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany. Routledge. pp. 136–8. ISBN 978-0-415-30860-1.
  116. ↑ Ernst Helmreich, The German Churches Under Hitler. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1979, p. 241.
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  118. ↑ Poewe, Karla O. (2006). New Religions and the Nazis. Psychology Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-415-29025-8.
  119. ↑ William L. Shirer; The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich; Secker & Warburg; London; 1960; p234-240
  120. ↑ Tom Rees. Atheist nations are more peaceful, Epiphenom.com. Retrieved September 16, 2010
  121. 1 2 Michael Burleigh Sacred Causes HarperCollins (2006) p41, p42, p43
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  123. ↑ Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; Harper Collins Religious; 1993; p.211
  124. ↑ Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Vikiing; 2003; p.566 & 568
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  126. ↑ Elsie, R. (2000). A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. New York: NYU Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-2214-8.
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  130. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Cambodia History; accessed 10 November 2013
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  132. ↑ Atheism, not religion, is the real force behind the mass murders of history Dinesh D'Souza
  133. 1 2 Answering Atheist's Arguments Archived October 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Dinesh D'Souza
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  135. ↑ Interview with Richard Dawkins conducted by Stephen Sackur for BBC News 24's HardTalk programme, July 24th 2007. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved December 23, 2015.
  136. ↑ The Video: Bill O'Reilly Interviews Richard Dawkins Archived January 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  137. ↑ Dawkins 2006, p. 309
  138. ↑ Wright, Robert. "The Trouble with the New Atheists: Part II". Huffington Post.
  139. ↑ Chaves, Mark (2010). "SSSR Presidential Address Rain Dances in the Dry Season: Overcoming the Religious Congruence Fallacy". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 49 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2009.01489.x.
  140. 1 2 3 "Atheism and Science". Investigating Atheism project - Cambridge and Oxford. Atheists have appealed to science in defence of their atheism since the first avowedly atheistic manuscripts of the mid seventeenth century. However, as the German expert on atheism Winfried Schroeder has shown, the relationship between early modern atheism and science tended to embarrass rather than strengthen the fledgling atheism's case.[1]" ; "The renowned Denis Diderot, atheist and deist in turns, could still say in 1746 that science posed a greater threat to atheism than metaphysics.[3] Well into the eighteenth century it could be argued that it was atheism and not theism which required a sacrifice of the intellect. As Schroeder has pointed out, atheists were scientifically retrograde until at least the mid eighteenth century, and suffered from their reputation as scientifically unserious.[4]" ; "As John Hedley Brooke has pointed out, for every nineteenth century person considering these issues who followed figures such as Thomas Henry Huxley or Francis Galton in regarding evolution as devastating for religious belief, there were others, such as the Oxford theologian Aubrey Moore, who regarded Darwin's evolutionary theory as an opportunity for religion.[7]At the beginning of the twenty first century the situation remains very similar:..
  141. 1 2 3 Schroeder, Winfried. Ursprunge des Atheismus: Untersuchungen zur Metaphysik- und Religionskritik des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts. Tubingen: Frommann- Holzboog, 1998. Pg 79-80, 291, 297-302
  142. ↑ Lindberg, ed. by David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (2003). When Science & Christianity Meet. Chicago (Ill.): the University of Chicago press. pp. 80, 84. ISBN 0226482146.
  143. ↑ Henry, John (2000). "35. Atheism". In Gary Ferngren. The History of Science and Religion in the Western Tradition : An Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Garland. pp. 182–188. ISBN 0-8153-1656-9.
  144. ↑ Edis, Taner (2013). "Atheism and the Rise of Science". In Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael. The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198745079.
  145. ↑ Fuller, Steve (2010). "What Has Atheism Ever Done For Science?". In Amarnath Amarasingam. Religion and the New Atheism A Critical Appraisal. Haymarket Books. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-1-60846-203-2.
  146. ↑ Pigliucci, Massimo. "The Wedge: what happens when science is taken over by ideology?". Rationally Speaking. Tufts University. Lysenko's wacky ideas fit perfectly well with Stalin's ideology: if the twisted version of dialectical materialism officially endorsed by the Soviet Union was true, then plants and animals (and by extension people) had to be infinitely pliable by changes in their environment and Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution must be simply the result of sick capitalist propaganda. Accordingly, Lysenko and his cronies took over Russian genetics and agriculture, exiling or putting to death the best scientists of that country and causing an economic catastrophe...It is somewhat amusing to ponder the symmetry between the two cases: communist and atheist ideology for Lysenko, religious and conservative for Johnson. The real danger does not seem to be either religion or atheism, but blind commitment to an a priori view of the world that ignores how things really are.
  147. ↑ Cotton, John; Scalise, Randall; Sekula, Stephen. "Trofim Lysenko and genetics in Soviet Russia (1927 - 1962)" (PDF). Debunking Pseudoscience. Southern Methodist University.
  148. 1 2 Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; pp.438-439
  149. ↑ Is Atheism Irrational?; New York Times; 9 Feb 2014
  150. ↑ Anthropic Principle
  151. ↑ James Schombert, Department of Physics at University of Oregon
  152. ↑ Giberson, Karl; Artigas, Mariano (2009). Oracles of Science: Celebrity Scientists Versus God and Religion. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–13. ISBN 9780195386189.
  153. ↑ Frans de Waal (March 24, 2013). "Has militant atheism become a religion?". Salon.
  154. ↑ Miller, Kenneth R. (1999). Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution. New York: Harper Perennial. pp. 269–275. ISBN 9780060930493.
  155. ↑ McGrath, Alister (2010). "The Ideological Uses of Evolutionary Biology in Recent Atheist Apologetics". In Alexander, Denis R.; Numbers, Ronald L. Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226608417.
  156. ↑ Lennox, John C. (2010). God and Stephen Hawking: Whose Design is it Anyway?. Oxford: Lion. pp. 11–12, 17–21, 47–66. ISBN 0745955495.
  157. ↑ Taking Science on Faith; Paul Davies, The New York Times, 24 Nov 2007
  158. ↑ An Evening with John Lennox; ABC Radio National - The Spirit of Things; 7 August 2011
  159. ↑ The Question of God - an interview with Francis Collins; PBS; 2004
  160. ↑ Dawkins, Richard (2006-09-18). The God Delusion. Ch. 6: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9.
  161. ↑ Hooper, Simon. "The rise of the New Atheists". CNN. Retrieved 2014-10-14
  162. ↑ Reza Aslan on What the New Atheists Get Wrong About Islam; New York Magazine; 14 October 2014
  163. ↑ Eller, Jack (2010). "What Is Atheism?". In Phil Zuckerman. Atheism and Secularity Vol.1: Issues, Concepts, Definitions. Praeger. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-313-35183-9.
  164. ↑ Jeffrey Robbins and Christopher Rodkey (2010). "Beating 'God' to Death: Radical Theology and the New Atheism". In Amarnath Amarasingam. Religion and the New Atheism A Critical Appraisal. Haymarket Books. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-60846-203-2.
  165. ↑ William Stahl (2010). "One-Dimensional Rage: The Social Epistemology of the New Atheism and Fundamentalism". In Amarnath Amarasingam. Religion and the New Atheism A Critical Appraisal. Haymarket Books. pp. 97–108. ISBN 978-1-60846-203-2.
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