Diplomacy and commerce during the treasure voyages

Main article: Treasure voyages
Porcelain wares, such as those similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks from Jingdezhen, were often presented as trade goods during the expeditions. (British Museum)

The treasure ships had an enormous cargo of various products.[1] Admiral Zheng returned to China with many kinds of tribute goods, such as silver, spices, sandalwood, precious stones, ivory, ebony, camphor, tin, deer hides, coral, kingfisher feathers, tortoise shells, gums and resin, rhinoceros horn, sapanwood and safflower (for dyes and drugs), Indian cotton cloth, and ambergris (for perfume).[1] They even brought back exotic animals, such as ostriches, elephants, and giraffes.[1] There was so much cobalt oxide from Persia that the porcelain center Jingdezhen had a plentiful supply for decades after the voyages.[1] The fleet also returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity in Chinese society.[1] It has been said that there was sometimes so many Chinese goods unloaded into a single foreign port that it could take about three months to price everything.[2] The treasure voyages resulted in a flourishing Ming economy,[3] while boosting the lucrative maritime commerce to an all-time high.[4]

Imperial proclamations were issued to the foreign kings, which meant that they could either submit and be bestowed with rewards or refuse and be pacified under the threat of an overwhelming military force.[5][6] Foreign kings had to reaffirm their recognition of the Chinese emperor's superior status by presenting tribute.[7] Many countries were enrolled as tributaries.[8] The treasure fleet conducted the transport of the many foreign envoys to China and back, but some envoys traveled independently.[9] Those rulers who submitted received political protection and material rewards.[10]

During the Hongwu reign, the situation in the Malay-Indonesian world was viewed with a negative attitude.[11] However, the treasure fleet came to dominate the Malay-Indonesian sphere via Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula.[11] In Ceylon and southern India, the treasure fleet forced the political situation of the region into their favor, while making the maritime routes safe for commerce and diplomacy.[11]

In 1404, the eunuch envoy Yin Qing was sent on a mission from Ming China to Malacca.[12] King Paramesvara of Malacca (r. 1399–1413), delighted by this, reciprocated with an envoy bearing tribute in local products.[12] A year later during the first treasure voyage, Admiral Zheng He arrived at Malacca to formally confer Paramesvara's investiture as King of Malacca.[12] Malacca's ruling house would be on friendly terms with Ming China and collaborate with the treasure fleet.[12] The Ming recognition and alliance was a factor that ensured stability in Malacca.[13] Malacca prospered and gradually came to replace Palembang as the regional trading center.[14]

The Yongle Emperor commissioned Shen Du to make this painting of the tribute giraffe, presented by Bengal on 20 September 1414 (Philadelphia Museum of Art).[15]

The Taizong Shilu entry of 12 August 1406 noted that Chen Zuyi and Liang Daoming sent envoys to the Ming court, possibly while Admiral Zheng He was commanding the treasure fleet through Indonesian waters to return home.[16] Chen Zuyi sent his son Chen Shiliang to the Ming court.[16] Liang Daoming sent his nephew Liang Guanzheng, Xigandaliye, and Hajji Muhammad to the Ming court.[16][17] The Ming court understood that Liang Daoming was the leader of the Chinese community at Palembang, but ranked Chen Zuyi above Liang as they saw Chen as the Chieftain (toumu) of Palembang, which was not an official Ming title.[16] It is possible that Chen Zuyi had hoped for official recognition by the Ming court, but it never came to be.[16] Admiral Zheng He was informed by Shi Jinqing about Chen Zuyi's piracy, causing Chen to be classified as a pirate in the eyes of the Chinese authorities.[18] During the first voyage, Admiral Zheng He established order in Palembang under Chinese rule.[19] The Ming court recognized Shi Jinqing as the Grand Chieftain (da toumu) of Palembang after Admiral Zheng He had captured Chen Zuyi.[20] After Shi Jinqing's death, his daughter Shi Erjie became king (wang)—a title normally not held by women—rather than his son, a very uncommon situation for both the patriarchal Chinese and Muslims.[20] On 27 February 1425, according to the Taizong Shilu, Admiral Zheng He was sent on a diplomatic mission to confer a gauze cap, a ceremonial robe (with floral gold woven into gold patterns in the silk), and a silver seal on Shi Jisun (Shi Jinqing's son), who had received the Yongle Emperor's approval to succeed his father's office of Pacification Commissioner.[21] The Taizong Shilu didn't define Palembang as a separate country on its own right.[22] In contemporary Chinese sources, Palembang was mostly known as Jiugang (lit. "Old Harbor").[19]

During the second voyage, the rulers of Calicut, Malacca, and Champa had made it a policy to cooperate with Ming China and gave the treasure fleet a series of bases from where they could operate during their travels.[23] For the second voyage, one of the main responsibilities was to confer formal investiture on the King of Calicut.[24][25] Early in the voyages, Ceylon was perceived with considerable enmity by China.[14] Its rulers were even actively hostile towards the treasure fleet when they arrived during the third voyage.[14]

Coinciding with the first voyage, China was in war with Vietnam and was set on conquering it.[14] Champa was an ally of China and in state of conflict with Vietnam, thus they received the support of China.[26]

In 1408, King Ghiyath-ud-Din of Bengal sent a tribute mission to China.[27] In 1412, an envoy was sent to announce the death of King Ghiyath-ud-Din and the accession of his son Sa'if-ud-Din as the new king.[27] In 1414, King Jalal-ud-Din (r. 1414–1431) sent a giraffe as tribute to China.[27] In 1415, the Yongle Emperor sent Hou Xian to confer gifts to the king, queen, and ministers of Bengal.[27] Hou Xian was a Grand Director who had accompanied Zheng He during the second and third voyage.[27] In 1438, Bengal sent a griraffe as tribute to China.[27] In 1439, Bengal sent a tribute mission to China.[27]

Ma Huan and the Mingshi described Aden as a Muslim country whose people were overbearing and whose ruler had 7 to 8 thousand well-drilled horsemen and foot soldiers, thus the country was relatively powerful and its neighbors were fearful of it.[28] Aden's king was al-Malik an-Nasir Salah-ad-Din Ahmad (r. 1400–1424) of the Rasulid dynasty, who earlier had taken control of Yemen from the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.[28] King Ahmad accepted the imperial edict and gifts that he received from the Chinese envoys and greeted them "with great reverence and humility" when they visited Aden during the treasure fleet's fifth voyage.[28] He may have hoped for military assistance against the threat that the Mamluk Sultanate posed at the time.[28] Even though the fleet returned in the sixth voyage, Yemen fell apart when their slave soldiers repeatedly rebelled under the reigns of King Ahmed's descendants: Abdallah, (r. 1424–1427, his son), Isma'il II (r.1427–1428, his son), and Yahya (r. 1428–1439, son of Isma'il II).[28] The Mingshi noted that Aden had sent a total of four tribute missions to China.[28]

In reference to the last expedition in connection to the Mamluk Sultanate, Ibn Taghribirdi's account, dated 21 June 1432, recorded a report that came from Mecca about two Chinese ships that had anchored at Aden after departing from India.[29] The two captains of the ships had written to Sharif Barakat ibn Hasan ibn Ajlan (Emir of Mecca) and Sa'd al-Din Ibrahim ibn al-Marra (controller of Jeddah) for permission to come to Jeddah, as stated by the report, since the cargo was not loaded off the ships in Aden due to the disorder in Yemen.[29] The account noted that the latter two wrote to the Sultan about this, making him eager for the many Chinese goods, thus the Sultan wrote back that the Chinese may come to Jeddah and are to be treated with honor.[29]

Several African nations sent ambassadors who presented elephants and rhinoceros as tribute to China.[30] In 1415, Malindi presented a giraffe.[31] The final tribute mission from Malindi was in 1416, but it's not known which local products were presented to the Ming court.[32]

According to Zheng He's two inscriptions, Mogadishu presented zebras (huafulu) and lions as tribute to them during the fifth voyage.[33] The inscriptions also noted that Brava presented camels and ostriches as tribute during the voyage.[33] Brava sent a total of four tribute missions to China from 1416 to 1423.[33]

Aden had send tribute giraffes on the fifth and sixth voyage, but the one on the fifth never arrived in China.[32] Mecca had also send them on the seventh voyage.[32] The giraffes were not likely to be native to Aden or Mecca.[32] Bengal also send a tribute giraffe, although it was said that it was a re-export from Malindi.[32]

The Tausugs of Jolo respect and revere one of Zheng He's Chinese Muslim Admirals, Pun Tao Kong (Pei Pei Hsien). Jati Tunggal is where his grave is.[34][35] In the Qing Qianlong Emperor's 56th year of his reign, in 1792 in Jolo, Chinese merchants constructed a tomb for the Admiral Pun Tao Kong.[36] The nature of China-Sulu relations was confirmed to be one of camaraderie and harmony as displayed by Pun Tao Kong's visit as said by Moro Muslim historian Fiscal Jainal D. Rasul. Sulu was inhabited by Chinese even before Poon Tao Kong's visit, in the 1300s (14th century). Chinese merchants played a big role in Sulu's economy. The Poon Tao Kong Temple is located at Jati Tunggal.[37][38] The outskirts of Jolos is where the tomb is found. The Amoy dialect pronunciation of his name is Pun-Tao-Kong while it is alternately pronounced Penn-Teeo-Kung. China turned down an offer by the Sulu Sultan for China to extend its sovereignty over Sulu. According to legend Admiral Zheng He's officer in Jolo was Penn-Teeo-Kung.[39][40] Pun Tao Kong was alternately called Pei-Pon-tao and he arrived in Jolo in December 1405 with Zheng He's fleet.[41] It was in Jolo that he died as he was serving as a Ming official; his tomb is located there.[42] Originally Malaysia was his destination as a diplomat while the Philippine's legacy of Ming suzerainty is testified to by his tomb in Jolo.[43] Jolo's beach is the location of Pun Tao Kong's tomb, close to the sea. He was a "tribute collector".[44] Palm trees shade over his tomb.[45] His destination was Malaysia but while in Jolo he passed away and his tomb is a witness to the pre-Spanish colonial era relations between Philippine states and China.[46] Originally Malaysia was his destination as a diplomat while the Philippine's legacy of Ming suzerainty is testified to by his tomb in Jolo.[43] Sulu's suzerainty under the Ming is testified to by Pun Tao Kong's tomb.[47] Pei-Pei Hsien, an admiral in the fleet of Zheng he, served the Ming dynasty Yongle Emperor and embarked on the 3rd year of his reign.[35]


References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Finlay 2008, 337.
  2. ↑ Brook 1998, 616.
  3. ↑ Cited in Finlay 2008, 337.
  4. ↑ Mills 1970, 3–4.
  5. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 33.
  6. ↑ Mills 1970, 1–2.
  7. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 343.
  8. ↑ Fairbank 1942, 140.
  9. ↑ Church 2004, 8.
  10. ↑ Mills 1970, 2.
  11. 1 2 3 Dreyer 2007, 27.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Dreyer 2007, 42.
  13. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 42–43 & 61.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Dreyer 2007, 61.
  15. ↑ Church 2004, 1–4.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Dreyer 2007, 58.
  17. ↑ http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/914
  18. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 42 & 58.
  19. 1 2 Dreyer 2007, 30.
  20. 1 2 Dreyer 2007, 57.
  21. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 57–58.
  22. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 93.
  23. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 65.
  24. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 59.
  25. ↑ Mills 1970, 11.
  26. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 52.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dreyer 2007, 157.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dreyer 2007, 87.
  29. 1 2 3 Chaudhuri 1989, 112.
  30. ↑ Dreyer 2007, 89.
  31. ↑ Church 2004, 24.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 Dreyer 2007, 90.
  33. 1 2 3 Dreyer 2007, 88.
  34. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20140316050749/http://alqalam.addu.edu.ph/sulu-treaties/
  35. 1 2 Jainal D. Rasul; Amir T. Rasul (2003). Struggle for identity: a short history of the Filipino muslims. CARE Minorities, Inc. pp. 9–10.
  36. ↑ Yearbook. 1965. p. 74.
  37. ↑ Examiner. L.O. Ty.
  38. ↑ EXAMINER The Philippine Newsmagazine. Volume XII (No. 8 ie. 9) https://books.google.com/books?id=Gkg_AAAAMAAJ&dq=pun+tao+kong&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=no+doubt. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  39. ↑ Teh-Ming Wang (1967). Sino-Filipino Historico-cultural Relations. University of the Philippines. pp. 313–314.
  40. ↑ Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review. College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines. 1965. pp. 313–314.
  41. ↑ Gregorio F. Zaide (1979). The Pageant of Philippine History: Political, Economic, and Socio-cultural. Philippine Education Company. p. 89.
  42. ↑ International Association of Historians of Asia (1962). Conference Proceedings. p. 478.
  43. 1 2 Gregorio F. Zaide (1957). Philippine Political and Cultural History, Volume 1 (revised ed.). Philippine Education Company. p. 39.
  44. ↑ Gregorio F. Zaide (1970). The Republic of the Philippines: (history, Government, and Civilization). Rex Book Store. p. 28.
  45. ↑ Gregorio F. Zaide (1939). Philippine history and civilization. Philippine Education Co. pp. 42, 751.
  46. ↑ Kapisanang Pangkasaysayan ng Phlipinas (1962). Biennial Conference Proceedings. p. 478.
  47. ↑ Antonio S. Tan (1972). The Chinese in the Philippines, 1898-1935: A Study of Their National Awakening. R. P. Garcia Publishing Company. pp. 17, 414.

Bibliography

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