List of Syrian monarchs

The region of Syria

The title King of Syria and Queen of Syria appeared in the second century BC in referring to the Seleucid kings who ruled the entirety of the region of Syria. It was also used to refer to Aramean kings in the Greek translations of the Old Testament; mainly indicating the kings of Aram-Damascus.

Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the region came under the rule of France, United Kingdom and prince Faisal of Hejaz who was proclaimed King of Syria on 8 March 1920. Faisal's reign lasted a few months before he was overthrown by France and the title fell out of use.

Kings and Queens of Syria

Background

The term "Syria" was first applied by Herodotus in the 5th century BC to indicate a region generally extending between Anatolia and Egypt.^[1][2] With the advent of the Hellenistic period, Greeks and their Seleucid dynasty used the term "Syria" to designate the region between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates.^[3] The usage of the name in referring to the region during the Iron Age (ended 586 BC) is a modern practice.^[1][4]

Seleucid dynasty

The Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great defeated the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the Battle of Panium (200 BC); he annexed the Syrian lands controlled by Egypt and united them with his Syrian lands, thus gaining control of the entirety of Syria.^[5] Starting from the 2nd century BC, ancient writers, such as Polybius and Posidonius, began referring to the Seleucid ruler as the king of Syria.^[6][7] The evidence for this title's usage by the kings is provided by the inscription of a certain Antigonus son of Menophilus, who described himself as the "admiral of Alexander, king of Syria" (Alexander refers either to Alexander I Balas or Alexander II Zabinas).^[7]

Portrait	Regent name (and lifespan)	Reign	Consort (and reign)	Parents, co-regents, and notes
	Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC)	222–187 BC	Laodice III (222–c. 191 BC) Euboea (191–187 BC)	Son of Seleucus II Callinicus and Laodice II Around 221 BC, he left Laodice III as Queen in Antioch while campaigning.[8]
	Antiochus (221–193 BC)	210–193 BC	Laodice IV (196–193 BC)	First son of Antiochus III the Great and Laodice III As crown prince, from 210–193 BC he ruled as joint king with his father, who appointed him as future regent in 196 BC.
	Seleucus IV Philopator (c. 218–175 BC)	187–175 BC	Laodice IV (187–175 BC)	Son of Antiochus III the Great and Laodice III Some sources say he was assassinated in a coup by his minister Heliodorus, who in turn quickly lost power to Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
	Antiochus IV Epiphanes (c. 215–164 BC)	175–163 BC	Laodice IV (c. 175–c. 163 BC)	Son of Antiochus III the Great and Laodice III Antiochus IV Epiphanes proclaimed himself co-regent with the infant son of Seleucus IV, also named Antiochus. He had the child assassinated in 170 BC.
	Antiochus V Eupator (172–161 BC)	163–161 BC	Unmarried	Son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Laodice IV He was appointed Syrian King by the Romans with his protector Lysias as regent. Lysias fought against a rebellion led by Timarchus.
	Timarchus (unknown-160 BC)	163–160 BC		Usurper who claimed to be King of Syria between 163–160 BC.
	Demetrius I Soter (185–150 BC)	161–150 BC	Laodice V (c. 161–150 BC) Apama	Son of Seleucus IV Philopator and Laodice IV
	Alexander I Balas (unknown-145 BC)	150–145 BC	Cleopatra Thea (150–145 BC)	Unconfirmed heritage, he was championed as the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Laodice IV by Heracleides, a former minister of Antiochus IV and brother of the usurper Timarchus.
	Demetrius II Nicator (unknown–125 BC)	145–139 BC (first reign)	Cleopatra Thea (145-137 BC)	Son of Demetrius I Soter and possibly Laodice V First of two reigns. About 147 BC he returned from captivity to claim his father's throne, and Ptolemy VI Philometor, king of Egypt, divorced his daughter Cleopatra Thea from Balas, allowing her and Demetrius II Nicator to marry. After his capture and second captivity, she divorced him.
	Antiochus VI Dionysus (148 BC-142/1 BC)	145–142 BC	Unmarried	Son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea Antiochus VI did not actually rule. Either already in 145 or in early 144 BC he was nominated by the general Diodotus Tryphon as heir to the throne in opposition to Demetrius II.
	Diodotus Tryphon (unknown-138 BC)	142-138 BC		After the death of his student Antiochus VI Dionysus, General Diodotus Tryphon convinced the army to elect him king, taking the titles of Basileus, as was tradition for Hellenistic kings, but also that of Autokrator[9] and the regal name of Tryphon.[10]
	Antiochus VII Sidetes (unknown-129 BC)	138–129 BC	Cleopatra Thea (137-129 BC)	Son of Demetrius I Soter and possibly Laodice V Also known as Antiochus VII Euergetes. After his elder brother Demetrius II Nicator was taken prisoner, Sidetes became King in his stead
	Alexander II Zabinas (unknown-122 BC)	129–123 BC		A likely son of the Egyptian merchant Protarchus, Zabinas claimed to be the adoptive son of Antiochus VII Sidetes A counter-king opposing Demetrius II with support from the Egyptian king Ptolemy VIII Physcon,[11] after Zabinas defeated Demetrius II he ruled parts of Syria in opposition of Cleopatra Thea.
	Demetrius II Nicator (unknown–125 BC)	129–126 BC (second reign)	Cleopatra Thea (129–126 BC)	Son of Demetrius I Soter and possibly Laodice V Defeated in battle at Damascus in 126 BC,[12] when he fled to Ptolemais Cleopatra Thea closed the gates against him,[13] and he was afterwards killed near Tyre.[12]
	Cleopatra Thea (ca. 164-121 BC)	126-125 BC (fourth reign) 125-121 BC (fifth reign)	Unmarried as regent	Daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II Previously Queen consort for Alexander I Balas, Demetrius II, and Antiochus VII, in 126 BC she became co-regent of Syria with her son Seleucus V Philometor. She subsequently ruled as co-regent with her son Antiochus VIII Grypus.
	Seleucus V Philometor (unknown-125 BC)	126-125 BC	Unmarried	Eldest son of Demetrius II Nicator and Cleopatra Thea He briefly ruled with his mother, Cleopatra Thea, as co-regent. She had him assassinated in 125 BC.[14][15]
	Antiochus VIII Grypus (unknown-96 BC)	125–121 BC (first reign) 121-96 BC (second reign)	Tryphaena (125-111 BC) Cleopatra Selene I (?-96 BC)	Son of Demetrius II Nicator and Cleopatra Thea He initially shared power with his mother, Cleopatra Thea, as co-regent,[16][17] until her death around 121 or 120 BC.[16][17]
	Antiochus IX Cyzicenus (unknown-96 BC)	114–96 BC	Cleopatra IV (114-112 BC) Cleopatra Selene I (96-95 BC)	The son of Antiochus VII Sidetes and Cleopatra Thea After the death of his mother in 121 BC,[18] he challenged his half-brother/cousin, Antiochus VIII Grypus, for the crown of Syria. In 116 BC they made a short-lived truce to each rule half of the kingdom.[18]
	Seleucus VI Epiphanes (unknown-95 BC)	96–95 BC		The eldest son of Antiochus VIII Grypus and Tryphaena
	Antiochus X Eusebes (unknown-92 or 83 BC)	95–92 BC	Cleopatra Selene I (95–92 BC)	Son of Antiochus IX Cyzicenus and Cleopatra IV He ruled the Syrian capital Antioch and its surroundings in opposition to the four brothers of Seleucus VI, who also claimed the crown. He lost possession of Antioch to Philip I Philadelphus around 90 BC. Some sources argue Antiochus X Eusebes was defeated around 83 BC by the Parthians.
	Demetrius III Eucaerus (unknown-88 BC)	95–87 BC		Son of Antiochus VIII Grypus and Tryphaena With the assistance of Ptolemy IX Lathyros, he recovered part of his father's Syrian dominions and held court at Damascus.[12]
	Antiochus XI Epiphanes (unknown-92 BC)	95–92 BC		Son of Antiochus VIII Grypus and Tryphaena Took the diadem in 95 BC together with his brother (probably twin) Philip I Philadelphus, after their elder brother Seleucus VI Epiphanes was killed.
	Philip I Philadelphus (unknown-83 BC)	95–83 BC		Fourth son of Antiochus VIII Grypus and his Tryphaena Took the diadem in 95 BC together with his brother (probably twin) Antiochus XI Ephiphanes. He established himself in Antiochia after 92 BC.
	Antiochus XII Dionysus (unknown-84 BC)	87–84 BC		Fifth son of Antiochus VIII Grypus and Tryphaena He succeeded his brother Demetrius III Eucaerus as separatist ruler of the southern parts of the last remaining Seleucid realms, basically Damascus and its surroundings.
	Tigranes the Great (140–55 BC)	83–69 BC		Son of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I After Tigranes the Great, then King of Armenia, conquered Syria in 83 BC, the Syrians chose him as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria.[19] He appointed Magadates as his governor in Antioch.[20]
	Cleopatra Selene I (c. 135/130-69 BC)	83-69 BC	Unmarried during reign	Daughter of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III of Egypt She became co-regent for her two Antiochus XIII and Seleucus VII.[21] after the death of her husband Antiochus X Eusebes in either 92 or 85 BC.[22] While her teenage sons were in Rome at least between 75 BC and 73 BC,[23] Selene evidently ruled their Syrian possessions as regent, controlling Ptolemais until 69 BC.[21]
	Seleucus VII Philometer (unknown-c. 58 BC)	83–69 BC	Unmarried during reign	Son of Antiochus X Eusebes and Cleopatra Selene I He was recognized as king of Syria by several cities during the reign of Tigranes the Great.[19] For parts of his reign, for example between 75 BC and 73 BC, his mother served as co-regent for Seleucus VII and his brother Antiochus XIII.[24]
	Antiochus XIII Asiaticus (unknown-64 BC)	69–64 BC		Son of king Antiochus X Eusebes and Cleopatra Selene I Starting in 69 BC, Asiaticus ruled as a client king under Pompey
	Philip II Philoromaeus (unknown-64 or 56 BC)	65–64 BC	Unmarried	Son of Philip I Philadelphus Philip II was a client king under Pompey

Antonia dynasty

Name (and lifespan)	Reign	Consort	Notes
Ptolemy Philadelphus (36-29 BC)	34-31 BC	Unmarried	Fourth and youngest son of Mark Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt He was declared king of Syria during the Donations of Alexandria.[25]

Tanukhid rule

Name (and lifespan)	Reign	Consort	Notes
Mavia (unknown-425)	375–425	Widow during reign	Of Tanukh heritage Initially consort of her husband, King al-Hawari, after his death in 375 she took power in opposition to Roman rule.

Hashemite dynasty

Royal standard of the king of Syria

Following the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I, Faysal bin Hussein of the House of Hashim was proclaimed King of the Kingdom of Syria on 8 March 1920 in Damascus, following the Arab revolt against the Ottomans of 1916–1918.

His accession was not recognized by France or the United Kingdom who became the new imperial powers in the region, and on 23 July 1920, the French moved 9,000 troops towards Damascus, resulting in the Battle of Maysalun. Faisal was expelled from Syria on 25 July and went into exile in the United Kingdom. On 10 August, the Treaty of Sèvres divided the region into League of Nations mandates governed by France and the United Kingdom.

Portrait	Name (and lifespan)	Reign	Consort (and reign)	Notes
	Faisal (20 May 1885-8 Sept 1933)	8 Mar 1920 – 24 July 1920	Huzaima bint Nasser (8 March 1920 – 24 July 1920)	Son of Hussein bin Ali and Abdiyah bint Abdullah

Biblical usage for Aramean kings

In the first translation of the Old Testament into Greek written during the third century BC (called the Septuagint),^[26] Aram and Arameans were often translated as Syria and the Syrians;^[27][28] hence the king was referred to as the king of Syria,^[29] or the king of the Syrians,^[30] and this was carried on by many English translations.^[27] Aram in the Hebrew Old Testament and Syria in the translation indicated the kingdom of Aram-Damascus most of the times.^[27][31] Occasionally, other Aramean regions were also referred to as Syria;^[26][31] an example is the character known as "the Syrian of Paddan Aram, the sister of Laban the Syrian" where Syria does not designate Aram-Damascus but rather Paddan Aram in Mesopotamia.^[32][33]

According to W. Edward Glenny, the rendering of Aram by Syria might be explained by an anti-Syrian bias, since at the time of the translation, Syria belonged to the Seleucids; the Jews' main enemy. Aram-Damascus was the Jews' enemy during its Iron Age prime in the 9th century BC.^[34]

Aramean kings referred to as "kings of Syria"

Portrait	Name (and lifespan)	Reign	Parents, co-regents, and notes
	Rezon the Syrian (unknown)	10th century BC	Son of Eliada Some 19th century scholars equated Rezon as the throne name of King Hezion.
	Hezion (unknown)	circa 773 BCE	Equated by some scholars as Rezon the Syrian.
	Ben-Hadad I (unknown)	885–865 BC	Son of Tabrimmon and grandson of Hezion
	Ben-Hadad II (unknown–842 BC)	880–842 BC	According to some scholars, Bar-Hadad II was the son of Hazael,[35] who may also have been his son. Equated by some scholars with the name Adad-Idri, or Hadadezar
	Hazael (unknown-circa 796 BC)	842–796 BC	Formerly a court official for Hadadezar, he usurped the position
	Ben-Hadad III (lifespan unknown)	796–792 BC	Son of Hazael The only king mentioned by the name "Ben-Hadad" both in the Old Testament and extra biblical sources.[36]
	Rezin (unknown-732 BC)	754–732 BC	Known in Assyrian inscription as Raqyan.[37]

See also

• Greater Syria
• Syrian nationalism
• List of Seleucid rulers

References

1. Trevor Bryce (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. p. 680. ISBN 9780415394857.
2. Herodotus; George Rawlinson (1862). History of Herodotus, Volume 1. p. 126.
3. Daniel Pipes (1992). Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition. p. 13. ISBN 9780195363043.
4. Margreet L. Steiner; Ann E. Killebrew (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. p. 94. ISBN 9780191662546.
5. Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. p. 122. ISBN 9780674728820.
6. Nigel Wilson (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. p. 652. ISBN 9781136788000.
7. Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. p. 112. ISBN 9780674728820.
8. Polybius, v. 43
9. Bevan, ‘The House of Seleucus’, Vol.II, p.302
10. Bevan, ‘The House of Seleucus’, Vol.II, p.230-231
11. Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Alexander Zabinas". In William Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 127–128.
12.  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Demetrius s.v. Demetrius II". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 983.
13. "E. R. Bevan: The House of Ptolemy • Chap. X".
14. Livy, Periochae 60; Justin 39.1.9
15. Appian, Syriaca 69
16. Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, 2004
17. Cleopatra Thea by Chris Bennett
18. Antiochus IX Cyzicenus entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
19. Manaseryan, Ruben (1985). "Տիգրան Բ [Tigran II]". Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia (in Armenian). 11. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia Publishing. pp. 697–698.
20. The House Of Seleucus V2 by Edwyn Robert Bevan.
21. "Cleopatra Selene queen of Syria".
22. Cicero, In C. Verrem II 4.61, Appian, Syriaca VIII 49, XI 70, Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum T. Pompeii Trogi XL 2.2 (says Antiochus IX was his father). See also: C.J. Bennett, art. Cleopatra Selene queen of Syria, in Egyptian Royal Genealogy, 2002-2008 (n. 28).
23. Cicero, In Verrem actio 4.61-68
24. E.R. Bevan, The House of Seleucus, London, 1902, p. 263.
25. David Konstan (2006). Greeks on Greekness: Viewing the Greek Past Under the Roman Empire. p. 6. ISBN 9780906014288.
26. Paul V.M. Flesher; Bruce D. Chilton (2011). The Targums: A Critical Introduction. p. 339. ISBN 9789004217690.
27. Bruce M. Metzger; Michael David Coogan (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 44. ISBN 9780199743919.
28. James Strong; John McClintock (1867). Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Volume 1. p. 353.
29. Adam Clarke (1851). The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments: the Text Printed from the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorized Translation, Including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts: Genesis to Esther. p. 843.
30. Gerard Gertoux (2015). Kings David and Solomon: Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence. p. 103. ISBN 9781329698109.
31. Thomas Nelson (2014). NIV, The Chronological Study Bible. p. 622. ISBN 9781401680138.
32. Thomas Nelson (2013). KJV Study Bible: Second Edition. p. 52. ISBN 9781418589141.
33. Brian Schultz (2009). Conquering the World: The War Scroll (1QM) Reconsidered. p. 191. ISBN 9004168206.
34. Edward Glenny (2009). Finding Meaning in the Text: Translation Technique and Theology in the Septuagint of Amos. p. 152. ISBN 9789047429821.
35. Luis Robert Siddall, The Reign of Adad-nīrārī III: An Historical and Ideological Analysis of An Assyrian King and His Times. BRILL, 2013 ISBN 9004256148 p.37
36. Richard D. Nelson (2014). Historical Roots of the Old Testament (1200–63 BCE). p. 109. ISBN 9781628370065.
37. Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan (2016). Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE. p. 125. ISBN 9781498281430.

External links