Hungarians

Hungarians
Magyarok
Total population
c. 13.1–14.7 million[note 1]
Regions with significant populations
Hungary Hungary 8,504,492[1][note 2] – 9,827,875[2][note 3]
 United States 1,437,694  (2013)[3]
 Romania 1,227,623  (2011)[4]
 Slovakia[note 4] 458,467  (2011)[5]
 Canada 315,510  (2006)[6]
 Serbia 253,899   (2011)[7]
 Ukraine 156,566  (2001)[8]
 Germany 156,812[9]
 France 100,000–200,000  (2004)[10]
 Brazil 80,000[11]
 Australia 67,616[12]
 Austria 63,550  (2016)[13]
 United Kingdom 52,250  (2011)
 Sweden 40,000–70,000
 Argentina 40,000–50,000
 Croatia 16,595  (2001)[14]
 Czech Republic 14,672  (2001)[15]
 Ireland 8,034  (2011)[16]
 Italy 7,708  (2015)[17]
 Turkey 6,800  (2001)[3]
 Slovenia 6,243  (2002)[18]
 Russia 3,768  (2002)[19]
 Thailand 3,029
 Macedonia 2,003  (2002)[20]
 Poland 2,000 (2011)[21]
 New Zealand c. 2,000[22]
Languages
Hungarian
Religion
Roman Catholicism;[23]
Protestantism (chiefly Calvinism, Unitarianism and Lutheranism); Greek Catholic.
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars (Hungarian: magyarok), are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13.1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8.5–9.8 million live in today's Hungary (as of 2011).[24] About 2.2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the 1918–1920 dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Treaty of Trianon, and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbouring countries, especially Romania, Poland, Slovakia, Serbia and Ukraine. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Australia, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina. Hungarians can be classified into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székelys, the Csángós, the Palóc, and the Jász people.

Name

Further information: Name of Hungary

The exonym "Hungarian" is thought to be derived from Ugor or the Bulgar-Turkic On-Ogur (meaning "ten" Ogurs),[25] which was the name of the tribes who joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. Nonetheless, written sources called Magyars "Hungarians" prior to the conquest of the Carpathian Basin (in 837 "Ungri" mentioned by Georgius Monachus, in 862 "Ungri" by Annales Bertiniani, in 881 "Ungari" by the Annales ex Annalibus Iuvavensibus) when they still lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe eastward from the Carpathians. The Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority.[25] In the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many different names, such as "Ungherese" (in Italian) or Ungar (in German) or Hungarus.[26] The "H-" prefix is an addition in Medieval Latin.

Another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian word Yugra (Югра). It may refer to the Hungarians at a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the natural borders of Europe and Asia before their settlement of Hungary.[27]

The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym "Magyar" rather than the term "Hungarian".[25] Magyar is a Finno-Ugric word[28] from the Old Hungarian mogyër. The term "Magyar" possibly comes from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, called Megyer. The tribal name "Megyer" became "Magyar" referring to the Hungarian people as a whole.[29][30][31] The term Magyar may also come from the Hunnic term "Muageris" or Mugel.[32]

The Greek cognate of Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio,[33][34] though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars.[35]

The historical Latin term Natio Hungarica ("Hungarian nation") had a wider meaning, as it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity.

History

Pre-4th century AD

Main article: Hungarian prehistory

During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central and southern regions of the Urals split up. Some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards.[36] From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community. Judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture.[37]

4th century to c. 830

The possible homeland of the Hungarians, situated in the Southern Urals.

In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria (Bashkortostan) and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers.[38] Meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241.

The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate. Their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i.e. Bulgars (Proto-Bulgarians, Onogurs) and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes. The names of the seven tribes were: Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján.

c. 830 to c. 895

Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate. As a result, three Kabar tribes[39] of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854,[38] though other sources state that an attack by Pechenegs was the reason for their departure to Etelköz. The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the Ungri) along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of looting raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the Eastern Frankish Empire (Germany) and Great Moravia, but also against the Balaton principality and Bulgaria.[40]

Entering the Carpathian Basin (c. 895)

Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin, from the Chronicon Pictum, 1360.

In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians and entered the Carpathian Basin. The tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin. At the same time (c. 895), due to their involvement in the 894–896 Bulgaro-Byzantine war, Hungarians in Etelköz were attacked by Bulgaria and then by their old enemies the Pechenegs. The Bulgarians won the decisive battle of Southern Buh. It is uncertain whether or not those conflicts were the cause of the Hungarian departure from Etelköz.

From the upper Tisza region of the Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians intensified their looting raids across continental Europe. In 900, they moved from the upper Tisza river to Transdanubia (Pannonia), which later became the core of the arising Hungarian state. At the time of the Hungarian migration, the land was inhabited only by a sparse population of Slavs, numbering about 200,000,[38] who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Hungarians.[38]

Archaeological findings (e.g. in the Polish city of Przemyśl) suggest that many Hungarians remained to the north of the Carpathians after 895/896.[41] There is also a consistent Hungarian population in Transylvania, the Székelys, who comprise 40% of the Hungarians in Romania.[42][43] The Székely people's origin, and in particular the time of their settlement in Transylvania, is a matter of historical controversy.

After 900

The Hungarian leader Árpád is believed to have led the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin in 896. In 907, the Hungarians destroyed a Bavarian army in the Battle of Pressburg and laid the territories of present-day Germany, France, and Italy open to Hungarian raids, which were fast and devastating. The Hungarians defeated the Imperial Army of Louis the Child, son of Arnulf of Carinthia and last legitimate descendant of the German branch of the house of Charlemagne, near Augsburg in 910. From 917 to 925, Hungarians raided through Basle, Alsace, Burgundy, Saxony, and Provence.[44] Hungarian expansion was checked at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, ending their raids against Western Europe, but the raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued until 970.[45] Hungarian settlement in the area was approved by the Pope when their leaders accepted Christianity, and Stephen I the Saint (Szent István) was crowned King of Hungary in 1001. The century between the arrival of the Hungarians from the eastern European plains and the consolidation of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1001 was dominated by pillaging campaigns across Europe, from Dania (Denmark) to the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal).[46] After the acceptance of the country into Christian Europe under Stephen I, Hungary served as a bulwark against further invasions from the east and south, especially against the Turks.

Population growth of present-day territory of Hungary, regardless to ethnicity (900–1980)

At this time, the Hungarian nation numbered around 400,000 people.[38] The first accurate measurements of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary including ethnic composition were carried out in 1850–51. There is a debate among Hungarian and non-Hungarian (especially Slovak and Romanian) historians about the possible changes in the ethnic structure of the region throughout history. Some historians support the theory that the proportion of Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin was at an almost constant 80% during the Middle Ages.[47][48][49][50][51] Non-Hungarians numbered hardly more than 20% to 25% of the total population.[47] The Hungarian population began to decrease only at the time of the Ottoman conquest,[47][48][51] reaching as low as around 39% by the end of the 18th century. The decline of the Hungarians was due to the constant wars, Ottoman raids, famines, and plagues during the 150 years of Ottoman rule.[47][48][51] The main zones of war were the territories inhabited by the Hungarians, so the death toll depleted them at a much higher rate than among other nationalities.[47][51] In the 18th century their proportion declined further because of the influx of new settlers from Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs and Germans.[52] As a consequence of Turkish occupation and Habsburg colonization policies, the country underwent a great change in ethnic composition as its population more than tripled to 8 million between 1720 and 1787, while only 39% of its people were Hungarians, who lived primarily in the centre of the country.[47][48][49][51]

Other historians, particularly Slovaks and Romanians, argue that the drastic change in the ethnic structure hypothesized by Hungarian historians in fact did not occur. They argue that the Hungarians accounted for only about 30–40% of the Kingdom's population from its establishment. In particular, there is a fierce debate among Hungarians and Romanian historians about the ethnic composition of Transylvania through these times.

In the 19th century, the proportion of Hungarians in the Kingdom of Hungary rose gradually, reaching over 50% by 1900 due to higher natural growth and Magyarization. Between 1787 and 1910 the number of ethnic Hungarians rose from 2.3 million to 10.2 million, accompanied by the resettlement of the Great Hungarian Plain and Voivodina by mainly Roman Catholic Hungarian settlers from the northern and western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1715 (after the Ottoman occupation) the Southern Great Plain was nearly uninhabited but now has 1.3 million inhabitants, nearly all of them Hungarians.

Spontaneous assimilation was an important factor, especially among the German and Jewish minorities and the citizens of the bigger towns. On the other hand, about 1.5 million people (about two-thirds non-Hungarian) left the Kingdom of Hungary between 1890–1910 to escape from poverty.[53]

The Treaty of Trianon: Kingdom of Hungary lost 72% of its land and 3.3 million people of Hungarian ethnicity.

The years 1918 to 1920 were a turning point in the Hungarians' history. By the Treaty of Trianon, the Kingdom had been cut into several parts, leaving only a quarter of its original size. One-third of the Hungarians became minorities in the neighbouring countries.[54] During the remainder of the 20th century, the Hungarians population of Hungary grew from 7.1 million (1920) to around 10.4 million (1980), despite losses during the Second World War and the wave of emigration after the attempted revolution in 1956. The number of Hungarians in the neighbouring countries tended to remain the same or slightly decreased, mostly due to assimilation (sometimes forced; see Slovakization and Romanianization)[55][56][57] and to emigration to Hungary (in the 1990s, especially from Transylvania and Vojvodina).

After the "baby boom" of the 1950s (Ratkó era), a serious demographic crisis began to develop in Hungary and its neighbours.[58] The Hungarian population reached its maximum in 1980, then began to decline.[58]

For historical reasons (see Treaty of Trianon), significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, most of them in Romania (in Transylvania), Slovakia, and Serbia (in Vojvodina). Sizable minorities live also in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Croatia (primarily Slavonia), and Austria (in Burgenland). Slovenia is also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians, and Hungarian language has an official status in parts of the Prekmurje region. Today more than two million ethnic Hungarians live in nearby countries.[59]

There was a referendum in Hungary in December 2004 on whether to grant Hungarian citizenship to Hungarians living outside Hungary's borders (i.e. without requiring a permanent residence in Hungary). The referendum failed due to insufficient voter turnout. On May 26, 2010, Hungary's Parliament passed a bill granting dual citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living outside of Hungary. Some neighboring countries with sizable Hungarian minority expressed concerns over the legislation.[60]

Later influences

Besides the various peoples mentioned above, the Magyars assimilated or were influenced by subsequent peoples arriving in the Carpathian Basin. Among these are the Cumans, Pechenegs, Jazones, Germans, Vlachs (Romanians) and Slavs, amongst others. Ottomans, who occupied the central part of Hungary from c. 1526 until c. 1699, inevitably exerted an influence, as did the various nations (Germans, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and others) that resettled depopulated territories after their departure. Similar to other European countries, Jewish, Armenians, and Roma (Gypsy) minorities have been living in Hungary since the Middle Ages.

Ethnic affiliations and genetic origins

The place of origin for the regional groups of Hungarians in the conquest period according to Kinga Éry

Thanks to Pál Lipták's researches it has been known for almost half a century that only 16.7 percent of 10th century human bones belong to the Euro-Mongoloid and Mongoloid types.[61][62] The European characteristics in the biological composition of the recent Hungarian population and the lack of Asian markers are not solely due to the thousand years of blending.[61] Biologically, the population around 1000 AD in Hungary was made up almost exclusively of Europeans.[61]

A 2016 study stated that "the linguistically recorded Finno-Ugric roots and historically documented Turkic and Central Asian influxes had possible genetic imprints in the conquerors’ genetic composition" and "the maternal gene pool of Csangos, Szeklers and “average” Hungarians can be descended from 10th–12th century ancient Hungarians, and the differences in their haplogroup composition from the conquerors can be explained by genetic drift".[63] According to this study, 77 percent of the conquerors carried West-Eurasian haplogroups (H, HV, I, J, K, N1a, R, T, U, V, X, W) and the remaining 23 percent was made up of Central and East-Eurasian haplogroups (A, B, C, D, F, G, M).[63]

Another study on Y-Chromosome markers concluded that "modern Hungarian and Szekler populations are genetically closely related", and that they "share similar components described for other Europeans, except for the presence of the haplogroup P*(xM173) in Szekler samples, which may reflect a Central Asian connection, and high frequency of haplogroup J in both Szeklers and Hungarians".[64]

According to Dreisziger, there were not genetic anthropological and linguistic connections between the conquerors of 895 and modern Hungarian population and Hungarian language.[65]

Horolma Pamjav's group sees a connection between Madjars (a Kazakh tribe) and recent Hungarian population "they were closest to the Hungarian population rather than their geographical neighbors". The drawn conclusion was that "modern Hungarians may trace their ancestry to Central Asia, instead of the Eastern Uralic region as previously thought".[66]

Distribution of Y-DNA Haplogroup N

The matter of the genetic impact of the Magyar tribes reaching Hungary in the 9th century after 2000 years of migrations, which brought the Finno-Ugric language, whereas maintaining a Turkic way of life, has been central to several studies on modern Hungarians.[67]

According to a 2008 study, the mitochondrial lines of the Hungarians are indistinct from that of neighbouring Indo-Europeans, they are distinct from that of the ancient Hungarians (Magyars). Four 10th century skeletons from well documented cemetries in Hungary of ancient Magyar individuals were sampled.[67] Two of the four males belonged to Y-DNA Haplogroup N confirming their Uralic origin. None out of 100 sampled modern Hungarians carried the haplogroup, and just one of about 94 Székelys carried it. The study also stated that it was possible that the more numerous pre-existing populations or substantional later migrations, mostly Avars and Slavs, accepted the Uralic language of the elite.[67]

An autosomal analysis,[68] studying non-European admixture in Europeans, found 4.4% of admixture of non-European and non-Middle Eastern origin among Hungarians, which was the strongest among sampled populations. It was found at 3.6% in Belarusians, 2.5% in Romanians, 2.3% in Bulgarians and Lithuanians, 1.9% in Poles and 0% in Greeks. The authors stated "This signal might correspond to a small genetic legacy from invasions of peoples from the Asian steppes (e.g., the Huns, Magyars, and Bulgars) during the first millennium CE.".

Compared to the European nations, Andrea Vágó-Zalán's study determined that the Bulgarians were genetically the closest and the Estonians and Finns were among the furthest from the recent Hungarian population.[69]

According to Pamjav Horolma's study, which is based on 230 samples and expected to include 6-8% Romani people, the Hungarian haplogroup distribution from Hungary is as follows: 26% R1a, 20% I2a, 19% R1b, 7% I, 6% J2, 5% H, 5% G2a, 5% E1b1b1a1, 3% J1, <1% N, <1% R2.[70] Among 100 Hungarian men, 90 of whom from the Great Hungarian Plain, the following haplogroups and frequencies are obtained: 30% R1a, 15% R1b, 13% I2a1, 13% J2, 9% E1b1b1a, 8% I1, 3% G2, 3% J1, 3% I*, 1% E*, 1% F*, 1% K*. The 97 Székelys belong to the following haplogroups: 20% R1b, 19% R1a, 17% I1, 11% J2, 10% J1, 8% E1b1b1a, 5% I2a1, 5% G2, 3% P*, 1% E*, 1% N.[71] It can be inferred that Szekelys have more significant German admixture.

A study sampling 45 Palóc from Budapest and northern Hungary, found 60% R1a, 13% R1b, 11% I, 9% E, 2% G, 2% J2.[72] A study estimating possible Inner Asian admixture among nearly 500 Hungarians based on paternal lineages only, estimated it at 5.1% in Hungary, at 7.4 in Székelys and at 6.3% at Csangos.[73] It has boldly been noted that this is an upper limit by deep SNPs and that the main haplogroups responisble for that contribution are J2-M172 (negative M47,M67, L24, M12), J2-L24, R1a-Z93, Q-M242 and E-M78, the latter of which is typically European, while N is still negligible (1.7%). In an attempt to divide N into subgroups L1034 and L708, some Hungarian, Sekler, and Uzbek samples were found to be L1034 SNP positive, while all Mongolians, Buryats, Khanty, Finnish, and Roma samples showed a negative result for this marker. The 2500 years old SNP L1034 was found typical for Mansi and Hungarians, the closest linguistic relatives.[74]

According to autosomal genetic researches, the modern Hungarian population is almost indistinguishable from the southern German and West Slavic (Czechs, Poles, and Slovaks) populations.

Anthropologically, the type of Magyars of the conquest phase shows similarity to that of the Andronovo people,[75] in particular of the Sarmatian groups around the southern Urals.[76] The Turanid (South-Siberian) and the Uralid types from the Europo-Mongoloids were dominant among the conquering Hungarians.[77]

Maps

Folklore and communities

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hungarians.

Notes

  1. ↑ Though the number is based on the recent 2011 census data, it is a lower estimate, as both in Hungary and in Slovakia census participants had the option to opt out and not declare their ethnicity, hence about 2 million people decided to do so.
  2. ↑ This number is a lower estimate, as 1.44 million people opted out declaring ethnicity in 2011.
  3. ↑ Native Hungarian-speakers.
  4. ↑ This number is a lower estimate, as 405,261 people (7.5% of the total population) did not specify their ethnicity at the 2011 Slovak Census.

References

  1. ↑ Bojer, Anasztázia (2012). 2011. évi népszámlálás [2011 Census] (PDF). Central Statistics Office of Hungary (in Hungarian). Budapest. ISBN 978-963-235-417-0. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  2. ↑ "1.1.4.2 A népesség nyelvismeret és nemek szerint" [1.1.4.2 Population by spoken language] (XLS). Central Statistical Office of Hungary (in Hungarian). 17 April 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  3. 1 2 "Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported: 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  4. ↑ (Romanian) "Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele definitive ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011", at the 2011 Romanian census site; accessed July 11, 2013
  5. ↑ 2001 Slovakian Census
  6. ↑ "The 2006 census". 2.statcan.ca. Archived from the original on 2009-06-25. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
  7. ↑ 2011 Serbian Census
  8. ↑ "About number and composition population of UKRAINE by data All-Ukrainian census of the population 2001". State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. 2003. Archived from the original on 31 October 2004.
  9. ↑ "Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland (Stand: 31. Dezember 2014)".
  10. ↑ "Bund Ungarischer Organisationen in Deutschland" [Confederation of Hungarian Organizations in Germany]. buod.de (in German). Archived from the original on 13 July 2006.
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  13. ↑ "Bevölkerung zu Jahresbeginn seit 2002 nach detaillierter Staatsangehörigkeit" [Population at the beginning of the year since 2002 by detailed nationality] (PDF). Statistics Austria (in German). 14 June 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  14. ↑ "Položaj Nacionalnih Manjina u Republici Hrvatskoj – Zakonodavstvo i Praska" [The Position of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia - Legislation and Practice] (in Croatian). Centre for Human Rights. April 2005. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007.
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  23. ↑ "Discrimination in the EU in 2012" (PDF), Special Eurobarometer, 383, European Union: European Commission, p. 233, 2012, retrieved 14 August 2013 The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.
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  25. 1 2 3 Peter F. Sugar, ed. (1990-11-22). A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-253-20867-5. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
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  27. ↑ OED (s.v. "Ugrian"): "Ugri, the name given by early Russian writers to an Asiatic race dwelling east of the Ural Mountains"
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  32. ↑ Kosztolnyik, Z. J., Hungary under the early Árpáds, 890s to 1063, Distributed by Columbia University Press, 2002, pp. 28–29, ISBN 0-88033-503-3, Library of Congress control number 2002112276
  33. ↑ Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1967). De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae (New, revised ed.). Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. p. 65. ISBN 0-88402-021-5. Retrieved 28 August 2013. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his De Administrando Imperio (c. 950 AD), "Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretches west as far as the Siret River (or even the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and is four days distant from Tourkia (i.e. Hungary)."
  34. ↑ Günter Prinzing; Maciej Salamon (1999). Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa 950-1453: Beiträge zu einer table-ronde des XIX. International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Copenhagen 1996. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 46. ISBN 978-3-447-04146-1. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
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  42. ↑ Piotr Eberhardt (2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe. M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY and London, England, 2003. ISBN 978-0-7656-0665-5.
  43. ↑ "Szekler people". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  44. ↑ Stephen Wyley. "The Hungarians of Hungary". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
  45. ↑ "History of Hungary, 895–970". Zum.de. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
  46. ↑ "The Hungarians (650–997 AD)". Fanaticus.org. 2004-10-22. Retrieved 2013-08-22.
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  52. ↑ Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (1962), "5. The Eighteenth Century", Hungary; A short history, University Press, retrieved 3 August 2016
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  54. ↑ Kocsis, Károly (1998). "Introduction". Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin. Simon Publications LLC. ISBN 1-931313-75-X. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  55. ↑ Bugajski, Janusz (1995). Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe: A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations, and Parties. M.E. Sharpe (Washington, D.C.). ISBN 1-56324-283-4.
  56. ↑ Kovrig, Bennett (2000), Partitioned nation: Hungarian minorities in Central Europe, in: Michael Mandelbaum (ed.), The new European Diasporas: National Minorities and Conflict in Eastern Europe, New York City: Council on Foreign Relations Press, pp. 19–80.
  57. ↑ Raffay Ernő: A vajdaságoktól a birodalomig. Az újkori Románia története (From voivodeships to the empire. The modern history of Romania). Publishing house JATE Kiadó, Szeged, 1989, pp. 155–156)
  58. 1 2 "Nyolcmillió lehet a magyar népesség 2050-re". origo. Retrieved 2009-04-19.
  59. ↑ Hungary: Transit Country Between East and West. Migration Information Source. November 2003.
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  61. 1 2 3 Csanád Bálint (October 2008). "A történeti genetika és az eredetkérdés(ek)". Magyar Tudomány: 1170. Retrieved 2009-10-06. Cited: "Lipták Pálnak köszönhetően közel fél évszázada tudjuk, hogy a 10. sz.-i embercsontoknak csak 16,7 %-a tartozik a mongolid és az europo-mongolid rasszhoz. Tehát a mai magyarság szerológiai, és genetikai összetételében egyértelműen kimutatott európai jelleg, ugyanakkor az ázsiainak hiánya nem egyedül az eltelt ezer év keveredéseinek köszönhető, hanem már a honfoglalás- és Szent István-kori Magyarország lakossága is szinte kizárólag biológiailag európai eredetűekből állt." Translation: "Due to Pál Lipták we have known for almost half a century that only 16.7 percent of 10th century human bones belong to the Euro-Mongoloid and Mongoloid races. Thus, the unambiguously established European characteristics in the genetic and serological composition of the recent Hungarian population and the lack of Asian markers are not solely due to the thousand years of blending but biologically the populations of the conquest period and of St Stephen's Hungary were made up almost exclusively of peoples of European origin."
  62. ↑ Pál Lipták: A magyarság etnogenezisének paleoantropológiája (The paleoanthropology of Hungarian people's ethnogenesis) (Antropológiai Közl., 1970. 14. sz.)
  63. 1 2 Csősz, A. et al. Maternal Genetic Ancestry and Legacy of 10th Century AD Hungarians. Sci. Rep. 6, 33446; doi: 10.1038/srep33446 (2016).
  64. ↑ Csányi, B.; Bogácsi-Szabó, E.; Tömöry, Gy.; Czibula, Á.; Priskin, K.; Csõsz, A.; Mende, B.; Langó, P.; Csete, K.; Zsolnai, A.; Conant, E. K.; Downes, C. S.; Raskó, I. (2008). "Y-Chromosome Analysis of Ancient Hungarian and Two Modern Hungarian-Speaking Populations from the Carpathian Basin". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 519–534. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2008.00440.x. ISSN 0003-4800. PMID 18373723.
  65. ↑ Dreisziger, Nándor. “Ármin Vámbéry (1832-1913) as a Historian of Hungarian Settlement in the Carpathian Basin.” AHEA: E-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association, Volume 6 (2013)
  66. ↑ A. Z. Bíró, A. Zalán, A. Völgyi, and H. Pamjav. A Y-chromosomal comparison of the Madjars (Kazakhstan) and the Magyars (Hungary). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139:3 (July 2009): pages 305-310.
  67. 1 2 3 Csányi, B.; Bogácsi-Szabó, E.; Tömöry, Gy.; Czibula, Á.; Priskin, K.; Csõsz, A.; Mende, B.; Langó, P.; Csete, K.; Zsolnai, A.; Conant, E. K.; Downes, C. S.; Raskó, I. (1 July 2008). "Y-Chromosome Analysis of Ancient Hungarian and Two Modern Hungarian-Speaking Populations from the Carpathian Basin". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 519–534. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2008.00440.x. ISSN 1469-1809.
  68. ↑ Science, 14 February 2014, Vol. 343 no. 6172, p. 751, A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History, Garrett Hellenthal at al.: " CIs. for the admixture time(s) overlap but predate the Mongol empire, with estimates from 440 to 1080 CE (Fig.3.) In each population, one source group has at least some ancestry related to Northeast Asians, with ~2 to 4% of these groups total ancestry linking directly to East Asia. This signal might correspond to a small genetic legacy from invasions of peoples from the Asian steppes (e.g., the Huns, Magyars, and Bulgars) during the first millennium CE."
  69. ↑ Andrea Vágó-Zalán, A magyar populáció genetikai elemzése nemi kromoszómális markerek alapján, ELTE TTK Biológia Doktori Iskola, 2012, p. 51
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  72. ↑ Semino 2000 et al
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  74. ↑ A limited genetic link between Mansi and Hungarians
  75. ↑ István Fodor (1982). In search of a new homeland: the prehistory of the Hungarian people and the conquest. Corvina. p. 122.
  76. ↑ Antal Bartha, A magyar nép őstörténete, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988, p.221. Quote
    • "Figyelemre érdemes, hogy a honfoglaló magyarok embertani alkata közel áll a dél-uráli szauro és szarmata népesség körében fellelhetö tipusokhoz."
  77. ↑ Fóthi, Erzsébet (2000). "Anthropological conclusions of the study of Roman and Migration periods" (PDF). Acta Biologica Szegediensis. 44 (1-4): 87–94. Retrieved 1 August 2016.

Sources

Genetic studies

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