Mataram conquest of Surabaya

Mataram conquest of Surabaya
Date 1614–1625 Location central and eastern Java and Madura, primarily in northeastern coast of Java Result Mataram decisive victory Mataram domination in central and eastern Java
Belligerents
Mataram Sultanate	Duchy of Surabaya Allies: Tuban Pasuruan Wirasaba Lasem Sukadana Madura Pajang (in rebellion against Mataram) others
Commanders and leaders
Sultan Agung of Mataram Tumenggung Mangun Oneng (1625)[1]	Jayalengkara, Duke of Surabaya[2] Pangeran Pekik of Surabaya[2]

The Mataram conquest of Surabaya or Mataram-Surabaya War was a military campaign by the Sultanate of Mataram in the early 17th century which resulted in the capture of the Duchy of Surabaya (Kadipaten Surabaya) and the latter's allies in eastern Java, modern-day Indonesia. Prior to this conquest, Mataram and Surabaya were rivals for power in central and eastern Java.^[3] The campaign began in 1614 when Mataram, under the leadership of Sultan Agung, attacked Surabaya's allies, including Wirasaba. Surabaya and its allies then counter-attacked, but they were defeated near Pajang. Subsequently, Mataram gradually conquered members of the Surabayan alliance, and by 1620, the city of Surabaya itself was under siege. Surabaya held out until it surrendered in 1625. With this conquest, Mataram unified most of central and eastern Java under its control,^[2] and cemented its position as the dominant power in Java.^[4] Surabaya and other conquered areas would remain in Mataram's hands until it was ceded to the Dutch East India Company in 1743.^[5]

Background

In the latter half of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Demak, the dominant power in the island of Java, disintegrated into multiple independent states.^[6] At the turn of the 17th century, three such states emerged as the leading powers: the Sultanate of Banten in western Java, the Sultanate of Mataram in inland central Java, and the Duchy of Surabaya in coastal eastern Java.^[7][8] Mataram consolidated its power by absorbing other principalities: Pajang in c. 1588, Demak (1588), Madiun (c. 1590) and Kediri (c. 1591).^[9] Following Mataram's unsuccessful westward expedition against Banten in c. 1597, Mataram turned its expansion eastward, into areas under the influence of Surabaya.^[9]

The Duchy of Surabaya was centered roughly in today's city of Surabaya in the northern coast of eastern Java.^[3] It was a wealthy and powerful state,^[3] and the city was an important port in the trade route between Malacca and the Spice Islands.,^[10] The city was approximately 37 kilometers in circumference, and was fortified by canals and cannons.^[3] Allied with the nearby state of Pasuruan, the Duchy expanded its influence throughout the eastern part of Java in the beginning of the 17th century.^[11] By 1622, it was in control of Gresik and Sedayu in eastern Java.^[3] It was also the overlord of Sukadana^[3] and Banjarmasin^[12] in southern Borneo. More doubtful reports said it might have also extended its influence to Pasuruan, Blambangan, Brantas valley region and Wirasaba.^[3] Other than these, Surabaya was also allied with Tuban, Malang, Kediri, Lasem, all in eastern Java, as well as Madura off the northern coast.^[13] This alliance of was primarily a response to the growing Mataram power,^[12] and Surabaya was the founder and the most powerful member.^[12][9]

Campaign

Conquest of Surabaya's allies

Sultan Agung, the monarch of Mataram during the conquest, in an Indonesian 2006 stamp

Mataram's expansions and conquests during the reign of Sultan Agung, including its eastward expansion towards Surabaya and its allies

In 1613, Hanyakrakusuma (r. 1613 – 1645, later titled Sultan Agung, "the Great Sultan", and referred to in literature with that title) rose to the throne of Mataram. He began the eastward conquest by an incursion towards Surabaya's southern flank, the Eastern Salient, Malang and possibly Pasuruan in 1614. Surabayan forces attacked this Mataram army during its homeward march, but was defeated. In 1615, Agung conquered Wirasaba, personally leading the troops there. Surabaya did not commit its troops to help Wirasaba, due to the fear that its other ally, Tuban would take advantage, betray Surabaya and attack it from the rear.^[14][12]

The conquest of the strategically-important Wirasaba posed such a clear threat to Surabaya and other eastern states, that the alliance rallied. They mobilized their troops and march towards Pajang, a city under Mataram's control but ostensibly on the verge of rebellion.^[14] However, a Mataram spy in Tuban deceived the allied forces into taking a bad route towads Pajang. As a result, the allied army found itself isolated in Siwalan, near Pajang. This army was surrounded by Sultan Agung and defeated in January 1616.^[14]

Agung then won victories in Lasem (1616) and Pasuruan (1616–1617). In 1617, Pajang finally rebelled against Mataram, but was defeated and the lord of Pajang fled to Surabaya.^[14] In 1619, Agung conquered Tuban, one of the strongest members of Surabaya's alliance.^[14] This conquest put Agung in control of Tuban's shipbuilding activities, and therefore allowed him to build a navy to challenge Surabaya's previous naval supremacy.^[14]

Sieges of Surabaya

By 1620, Mataram's main target shifted towards the city of Surabaya itself. From 1620 to 1625, Mataram forces periodically besieged Surabaya.^[14] The siege was difficult because part of Surabaya (including the ducal palace) was located between branches of the River Brantas,^[15] and it was in many parts surrounded by swampland, which formed a natural fortification and health risk for besiegers.^[16] In addition, the city was walled and fortified with cannons.^[3] Surabaya's position as a port city made it necessary for Mataram to blockade Surabaya by sea and by land.^[16] Logistical limitation and annual rainy seasons prevented Mataram from maintaining a continuous siege.^[16] Instead, Mataram followed a pattern of attacking during the dry season, destroying crops and and pillaging harvest from areas surrounding Surabaya.^[14][16]

Mataram sent five expeditions to attack Surabaya.^[16] The first, in 1620, involved 70,000 Mataram troops against Surabaya's 30,000,^[17] but the siege was broken due to insufficient supply for the Mataram troops.^[17] The second attempt in 1622 also failed due to lack of food supply.^[17] The third attempt in 1623 also failed to conquer Surabaya.^[18] Mataram besieged Surabaya again in 1624, occupying and pillaging the surrounding settlements and forcing their population to flee to the city.^[18] In parallel, Mataram also sent expedition against Surabaya's remaining allies, notably Sukadana in Borneo, which fell in 1622 and Madura which fell in 1624.^[14] These two overseas allies had been supplying Surabaya, and their fall severely cut off the city.^[14]

The fifth and final siege took place in 1625, and Mataram troops were led by Tumenggung Mangun Oneng, assisted by Tumenggung Yuda Prasena and Tumenggung Ketawangan.^[1] Mataram dammed the river Brantas, limiting water supply to the city,^[14] and spoiled the remaining water supply using dead animals.^[19] The overland siege, and previous conquest of Surabaya's overseas allies, caused a lack of food and other supplies in the city.^[19] Notably, only a sea route to Makassar was open.^[19] Considering the effects of the siege and the starvation in the city, Jayalengkara, the Duke of Surabaya called a council with the city's nobility.^[19] A faction, notably including the exiled Duke of Pajang, pushed for continued resistance, but other nobles convinced Jayalengkara to surrender.^[19]

Jayalengkara became Sultan Agung's vassal in Surabaya, and the elderly duke^[20] is said to die shortly afterwards.^[2] His son Pangeran Pekik was exiled to an ascetic life at the grave of Sunan Ngampel-Denta near Surabaya.^[2] Later, Pangeran Pekik lived in the court of Mataram, married Agung's sister, and, according to Dutch historian H. J. de Graaf, "did much to civilize the Court" of Mataram.^[20] The Duke of Pajang, a former subject of Mataram who rebelled and fled to Surabaya, was executed by drowning.^[21]

Aftermath

The conquest eliminated Mataram's strongest rival to the east, and allowed Sultan Agung to establish his sovereignty over most of Javanese-speaking population of Java, as well as Madura.^[2] Of the Javanese-speaking regions, only Blambangan remained independent in the East. There were also Banten Sultanate iand Dutch-controlled Batavia (today's Jakarta) in the West.^[2] Surabaya and other conquered regions in the northeastern coast of Java would remain in Mataram's hands until they were ceded to the VOC in the aftermath of the 1741–1743 Java War.^[5] This meant that they were inside Mataram influence during the Mataram-driven formative period of the Javanese culture, during which present-day features such as Javanese etiquette, art, language and social hierarchy, were taking shape.^[22]

This conquest marked the maximum extent of Mataram's power.^[2] Having consolidated his power in central and eastern Java, Agung then turned westward to deal with the Dutch. His army attacked Batavia in 1628, and again in 1629, but these campaigns ended in a devastating defeat.^[23] After this failure, Mataram expansion stopped and it would no longer be a threat to either Banten or the Dutch.^[24]

In addition, the campaign resulted in some destruction, especially in Javanese northern coast.^[2] The fighting, sickness, starvation, and the disruption of agriculture caused unknown number of death, but estimated to be large.^[2] Surabaya was now no longer a port of importance, and lost its dominance over eastern Java.^[25] The destruction of the coastal towns contributed to the decline of Javanese trade and the rise of the Sultanate of Makassar in Sulawesi as a major centre of spice trade in Nusantara.^[26]

References

Footnotes

1. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 64.
2. Ricklefs 2008, p. 48.
3. Ricklefs 2008, p. 46.
4. Syed, Akhtar & Usmani 2011, p. 337.
5. Ricklefs 2008, p. 116.
6. Ricklefs 2008, p. 41.
7. Ricklefs 2008, p. 38.
8. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 33.
9. Ricklefs 2008, p. 45.
10. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 28.
11. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 34.
12. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 35.
13. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 47.
14. Ricklefs 2008, p. 47.
15. Pigeaud 1976, p. 39.
16. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 58.
17. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 60.
18. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 62.
19. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 65.
20. Pigeaud 1976, p. 40.
21. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, p. 66.
22. Hefner 1990, p. 29.
23. Ricklefs 2008, p. 49.
24. Ricklefs 2008, p. 50.
25. Akhmad Saiful Ali 1994, pp. 77–78.
26. Kratoska 2001, p. 113.

Bibliography

• Hefner, Robert W. (January 1990). Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02856-7.
• Kratoska, Paul H. (2001). South East Asia, Colonial History: Imperialism before 1800. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-21540-4.
• Ricklefs, M.C. (2008-09-11). A History of Modern Indonesia Since C.1200. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 46–48. ISBN 978-1-137-05201-8.
• Pigeaud, Theodore Gauthier Thomas (1976). Islamic States in Java 1500–1700: Eight Dutch Books and Articles by Dr H.J. de Graaf. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-1876-7.
• Akhmad Saiful Ali (1994). Ekspansi Mataram terhadap Surabaya Abad ke-17 (Thesis) (in Indonesian). Surabaya: Islamic Institute of Sunan Ampel.
• Syed, Muzaffar Husain; Akhtar, Syed Saud; Usmani, B. D. (2011-09-14). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. pp. 336–337. ISBN 978-93-82573-47-0.