Leopard attack

The Gunsore man-eater after it was shot by British officer W. A. Conduitt on 21 April 1901. Credited with at least 20 human deaths, the leopard was killed on top of its last victim, a child from Somnapur village in the Seoni district, India.[1]

The frequency of Leopard attacks on humans varies by geographical region and historical period. Despite the leopard's (Panthera pardus) extensive range from sub-Saharan Africa to Southeast Asia, attacks are regularly reported only in India and Nepal.[2][3] Among the five "big cats", leopards are less likely to become man-eaters—only jaguars and snow leopards have a less fearsome reputation.[4][5] However, leopards are established predators of non-human primates, sometimes preying on species as large as the western lowland gorilla.[6] Other primates may make up 80% of the leopard's diet.[7] While leopards generally avoid humans, they tolerate proximity to humans better than lions and tigers and often come into conflict with humans when raiding livestock.[8]

Leopard attacks may have peaked in India during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, coinciding with rapid urbanization.[4] Attacks in India are still relatively common, and in some regions of the country leopards kill more humans than all other large carnivores combined.[9][10] The Indian states of Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal experience the most severe human–leopard conflict. In Nepal, most attacks occur in the midland regions (the Terai, midhills, and lesser Himalaya).[3] One study concluded that the rate of leopard predation on humans in Nepal is 16 times higher than anywhere else, resulting in approximately 1.9 human deaths annually per million inhabitants.[3] In the former Soviet Central Asia, leopard attacks have been reported in the Caucasus, Turkmenia (present day Turkmenistan), and the Lankaran region of present-day Azerbaijan.[11] Rare attacks have occurred in China.[12]

It is possible for humans to win a fight against a leopard, as in the case of a 56-year-old woman who killed an attacking leopard with a sickle and spade, and survived with heavy injuries,[13] and the case of a 73-year-old man in Kenya who fatally tore the tongue out of a leopard.[14] Globally, attacks on humans—especially nonfatal attacks that result in only minor injury—likely remain under-reported due to the lack of monitoring programs and standardized reporting protocol.[15]

Leopard predation on hominids

In 1970, South African paleontologist C. K. Brain showed that a juvenile Paranthropus robustus individual, SK 54, had been killed by a leopard at Swartkrans in Gauteng, South Africa approximately 1.8 million years ago.[16][17] The SK 54 cranium bears two holes in the back of the skull—holes that perfectly match the width and spacing of lower leopard canine teeth. The leopard appears to have dragged its kill into a tree to eat in seclusion, much like leopards do today.[16] Numerous leopard fossils have been found at the site, suggesting that the felids were predators of early hominids.[18] The revelation that these injuries were not the result of interpersonal aggression but were leopard-inflicted dealt a fatal blow to the then-popular killer ape theory.[19] Another hominid fossil consisting of a 6-million-year-old Orrorin tugenensis femur (BAR 1003'00), recovered from the Tugen Hills in Kenya, preserves puncture damage tentatively identified as leopard bite marks.[20] This fossil evidence, along with modern studies of primate–leopard interaction, has fueled speculation that leopard predation played a major role in primate evolution, particularly on cognitive development.[21]

Human–leopard conflict

Reducing human–leopard conflict has proven difficult. Conflict tends to increase during periods of drought or when the leopard's natural prey becomes scarce. Shrinking leopard habitat and growing human populations also increase conflict. In Uganda, retaliatory attacks on humans increased when starving villagers began expropriating leopard kills (a feeding strategy known as kleptoparasitism).[22] The economic damage resulting from loss of livestock to carnivores caused villagers in Bhutan's Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park to lose more than two-thirds of their annual cash income in 2000, with leopards blamed for 53% of the losses.[23] Similarly, in the Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal, the estimated monetary loss per household was US$95 in 2009 and US$42 in 2010 (out of an annual income of less than US$100), with leopards blamed for 94.9% of the losses.[24] Like other large carnivores, leopards are capable of surplus killing. Under normal conditions, prey are too scarce for this behavior, but when the opportunity presents itself leopards may instinctually kill in excess for later consumption.[25] One leopard in Cape Province, South Africa killed 51 sheep and lambs in a single incident.[26]

Translocation (the capture, transport, and release) of "problem leopards", as with other territorial felids, is generally ineffective: translocated leopards either immediately return or other leopards move in and claim the vacant territory. One translocated leopard in Cape Province traveled nearly 500 kilometres (310 mi) to return to his old territory.[27] Translocations are also expensive, tend to result in high mortality (up to 70%), and may make leopards more aggressive towards humans, thus failing as both a management and a conservation strategy.[28][29][30][31] Historically, lethal control of problem animals was the primary method of conflict management. Although this remains the situation in many countries,[30] leopards are afforded the highest legal protection in India under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972—only man-eaters can be killed and only when they are considered likely to continue to prey on humans.[32] In Uttarakhand, the state with the most severe human–leopard conflict, 45 leopards were legally declared man-eaters and shot by wildlife officials between 2001 and 2010.[2]

Where legal, herders may shoot at leopards who prey on their livestock. An injured leopard may become an exclusive predator of livestock if it is unable to kill normal prey, since domesticated animals typically lack natural defenses.[33] Frequent livestock-raiding may cause leopards to lose their fear of humans, and shooting injuries may have caused some leopards to become man-eaters. There has been increasing acceptance that the "problem leopard" paradigm may be anthropomorphization of normal carnivore behavior, and that translocations are unlikely to stop livestock depredation.[2][33] In an effort to reduce the shooting of "problem leopards" and lessen the financial burden on herders, some governments provide monetary compensation, although the sum is often less than the value of the lost livestock.[2]

 Number of Human Deaths due to Leopard Attacks†
Country Region Deaths Year(s) Ref
India Indian subcontinent ‡ 11,909 1875–1912 [34]
Bhagalpur district, Bihar 350 1959–1962 [8]
Uttarakhand 239 2000–2007 [35]
Throughout India (mainly Uttarakhand) 170 1982–1989 [36]
Pauri Garhwal district, Uttarakhand 140 1988–2000 [37]
Garhwal division, Uttarakhand 125 1918–1926 [38]
Gujarat 105 1994–2007 [39]
Uttar Pradesh 95 1988–1998 [19]
Junagadh district, Gujarat 29 1990–2012 [40]
Pune district, Maharashtra 18 2001–2003 [10]
Jammu and Kashmir 17 2004–2007 [41]
Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Maharashtra 16 1986–1996 [8]
North Bengal 15 1990–2008 [42]
Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh 13 1987–2007 [43]
Chikkamagaluru district, Karnataka 11 1995 [10]
Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh 8 1961–1965 [44]
Himachal Pradesh 6 2000–2007 [35]
Nepal Baitadi district, Mahakali zone 15 2010–2012 [45]
Pokhara Valley, Gandaki zone 12 1987–1989 [46]
Pakistan Ayubia National Park, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 12 1989–2006 [47]
Machiara National Park, Azad Kashmir 2 2004–2007 [48]
Somalia Golis Mountains, Togdheer 100 c. 1889 [49]
South Africa Kruger National Park 5 1992–2003 [50]
Sri Lanka Punanai, Batticaloa district 12 1923–1924 [51]
Zambia Chambezi River 67 1936–1937 [52]
Luangwa River 8 1938 [52]
† No comprehensive global database of fatal leopard attacks exists, and many countries do not keep official records. Due to the fragmentary nature of the data, the deaths reproduced here should be considered minimum figures only.
‡ The territories forming British India (Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Pakistan)

Man-eaters

Characteristics

The leopard is largely a nocturnal hunter. For its size, it is the most powerful large felid, able to drag a carcass larger than itself up a tree.[53] Leopards can run more than 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph), leap more than 6 metres (20 ft) horizontally and 3 metres (9.8 ft) vertically, and have a more developed sense of smell than tigers.[53] They are strong climbers and can descend down a tree headfirst.[53] Man-eating leopards have earned a reputation as being particularly bold and difficult to track. British hunters Jim Corbett (1875–1955) and Kenneth Anderson (1910–1974) wrote that hunting leopards presented more challenges than any other animal.[54][55] Indian naturalist J. C. Daniel (1927–2011), former curator of the Bombay Natural History Society, reprinted many early twentieth-century accounts of man-eating leopards in his book The Leopard in India: A Natural History (Dehradun: Natraj Publishers, 2009). One such account in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society describes the unique danger posed by leopards:

Like the tiger, the panther [leopard] sometimes takes to man-eating, and a man-eating panther is even more to be dreaded than a tiger with similar tastes, on account of its greater agility, and also its greater stealthiness and silence. It can stalk and jump, and...can climb better than a tiger, and it can also conceal itself in astonishingly meager cover, often displaying uncanny intelligence in this act. A man-eating panther frequently breaks through the frail walls of village huts and carries away children and even adults as they lie asleep.[8]

One study concluded that only 9 of 152 documented man-eating leopards were female.[56] Drawing on the sex and physical condition of 78 man-eating leopards, the same study concluded that man-eaters were typically uninjured mature males (79.5%), with a fewer number of aged and immature males (11.6% and 3.8%, respectively).[56] Once a leopard has killed and eaten a human, they are likely to persist as man-eaters—they may even show a nearly exclusive preference for humans.[17] In "Man-Eaters of Kumaon", Jim Corbett mentioned that leopards are driven to man-eating by acquiring a taste for human flesh due to scavenging on corpses thrown into the jungle during an epidemic. He wrote,"A leopard, in an area in which his natural food is scarce, finding these bodies very soon acquires a taste for human flesh, and when the disease dies down and normal conditions are established, he very naturally, on finding his food supply cut off, takes to killing human beings". Of the two man-eating leopards of Kumaon, which between them killed 525 people, the Panar Leopard followed on the heels of a very severe outbreak of cholera, while the Rudraprayag Leopard followed the 1918 influenza epidemic which was particularly deadly in India.[57] Corbett wrote that the Rudraprayag man-eater once broke into a pen holding 40 goats, but instead of attacking the livestock it killed and ate the sleeping 14-year-old boy who had been assigned to guard them.

Leopard attacks on humans tend to occur at night, and often close to villages. There have been documented incidents of leopards forcing their way into human dwellings at night and attacking the inhabitants in their sleep.[15] A number of fatal attacks have also occurred in zoos and homes with pet leopards.[58][59][60][61] During predatory attacks, leopards typically bite their prey's throat or the nape of the neck, lacerating or severing jugular veins and carotid arteries, causing rapid exsanguination. The spine may be crushed and the skull perforated, exposing the brain.[41][58][59] Survivors of attacks typically suffer extensive trauma to the head, neck, and face. Multibacterial infection resulting from the contamination of wounds by leopard oral flora occurs in 5–30% of attack survivors, complicating recovery.[58] Before the advent of antibiotics, 75% of attack survivors died from infection.[62]

Notable man-eaters

The Panar Leopard killed by Jim Corbett
British hunter Jim Corbett poses after shooting the Rudraprayag leopard on 2 May 1926
″attacking even gangs of three or four people and carts. The beast never appears on the road, but stalks them through the jungle and at a suitable opportunity springs out upon one of the unfortunate stragglers.″

After a failed attempt the previous day, Agar was successful in killing it when waiting for it in a tree hut that he got made near the corpse of a man that had been killed by the leopard, knowing that it would return to eat the remainder of the corpse:[69]

... It was about 3 p.m. after a heavy shower, that the leopard came out. ... "licking" his chops, looking at his kill a few yards away, and looking at me. ... My 4790 was ready on my lap, the safety catch slipped up. I knew at that range I could place the bullet where I liked, and I chose the neck shot, as I knew at that angle the explosive bullet would rake the creature's vital organs. At the shot the leopard rolled over-stone-dead-never to do any more dirty work. ... At the sound of the shot, all my people and others who had collected round my car to wait for the result came running back. ... I wished to get out of the cursed place with its ugly sights as soon as possible. Corpse smells were suffocating me. ... The man-eater was not a very large leopard. ... He stood high off the ground, was in fine condition, and showed abnormal development for its size in respect of pads, neck muscles and head. The canine teeth were very long. He had a great number of knife wounds, old and new, showing that some of his victims had fought for their lives. ... I heard that his first victim was a young Moor boy, and that may possibly have been the beginning of his notorious career.

The leopard was stuffed and is now in the National Museum of Sri Lanka in Colombo.[67] The leopard features in one of the books of Michael Ondaatje: The Man-eater of Punanai — a Journey of Discovery to the Jungles of Old Ceylon (1992).

Recent attacks

On January 6, 2015, a leopard injured a boy in Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh.[70] Another leopard killed 2 men in Kolar district, Karnataka.[71] On January 13, 2015, a leopard injured a woman with paw in Jiuni Valley of Mandi district while she had gone to collect fodder for household animals, injuring her on the neck.[72] On January 16, 2015, 2 boys were killed by a leopard in Uttarakhand.[73] On January 25, 2015, a leopard killed a girl in Galyat.[74] The next day, a leopard mauled 5 people, seriously injuring 3, before being killed in Jalpaiguri district.[75]

On February 14, 2015, a leopard injured 2 villagers in Sagar district.[76] Four days later, a leopard injured 6 people in Shravasti district.[77] On February 22, 2015, a girl was injured on the head when a leopard attacked her in Dingore village (approximately 20 km from Junnar).[78] On March 5, 2015, a leopardess critically injured 4 people before being stabbed to death in a forest of Jorhat district.[79]

See also

References

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  63. ↑ Corbett, E. J. (1954). The temple tiger and more man-eaters of Kumaon. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 64–86. OCLC 1862625. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
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  67. 1 2 Lal Anthonis, Panthera pardus kotiya Lanka gets her own endemic leopard, Sunday Times, 21st September 1997. Accessed on http://www.sundaytimes.lk/970921/plus15.html at 4.11.2016.
  68. ↑ Kithsiri Gunawardena, ”Cats in Sri Lanka & The Sri Lankan Leopard accessed on http://www.wilpattu.com/sri-lankan-leopard.php at 4.11.2016.
  69. 1 2 ″The man-eater of Punanai″ by Jayantha Jayawardene, Sunday Observer, 2.3.2014. Accessed on http://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2014/03/02/spe10.asp at 4.11.2016. (A shortened account of the story by Roper S. Agar as published in the Sri Lanka Wildlife Society's magazine Loris Volume 1, December 1938, No. 5.)
  70. ↑ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Boy-injured-in-leopard-attack/articleshow/45799926.cms
  71. ↑ http://www.deccanherald.com/content/452231/man-grandson-die-leopard-attack.html
  72. ↑ http://www.divyahimachal.com/himachal/sundernagar-mandi-news/%e0%a4%aa%e0%a4%a4%e0%a5%8d%e0%a4%a4%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%af%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%82-%e0%a4%9c%e0%a5%81%e0%a4%9f%e0%a4%be-%e0%a4%b0%e0%a4%b9%e0%a5%80-%e0%a4%ae%e0%a4%b9%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%b2%e0%a4%be-%e0%a4%aa/
  73. ↑ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2914847/Two-boys-aged-3-10-killed-fresh-leopard-attacks-Uttarakhand.html
  74. ↑ http://tribune.com.pk/story/827523/searching-for-food-girl-killed-in-leopard-attack/
  75. ↑ http://zeenews.india.com/news/sci-tech/leopard-mauls-five-beaten-to-death_1536834.html
  76. ↑ http://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/two-villagers-injured-in-leopard-attack-in-madhya-pradesh/article1-1316933.aspx
  77. ↑ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Several-injured-in-leopard-attacks/articleshow/46293078.cms
  78. ↑ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/14-year-old-girl-injured-in-leopard-attack-near-Junnar/articleshow/46361560.cms
  79. ↑ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Leopard-beaten-to-death-in-Jorhat/articleshow/46479152.cms
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