Pygmalion (mythology)

Étienne Maurice Falconet: Pygmalion et Galatée^{[notes 1]} (1763)

Pygmalion (/pɪɡˈmeɪliən/; Greek: Πυγμαλίων, gen.: Πυγμαλίωνος) is a legendary figure of Cyprus. Though Pygmalion is the Greek version of the Phoenician royal name Pumayyaton,^{[notes 2]} he is most familiar from Ovid's narrative poem Metamorphoses, in which Pygmalion was a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved.

In Ovid

Depiction of Ovid's narrative by Jean Raoux.

In Ovid's narrative, Pygmalion was a Cypriot sculptor who carved a woman out of ivory. According to Ovid, after seeing the Propoetides he was "not interested in women",^[1] but his statue was so beautiful and realistic that he fell in love with it.

In time, Aphrodite's festival day came, and Pygmalion made offerings at the altar of Aphrodite. There, too scared to admit his desire, he quietly wished for a bride who would be "the living likeness of my ivory girl." When he returned home, he kissed his ivory statue, and found that its lips felt warm. He kissed it again, and found that the ivory had lost its hardness. Aphrodite had granted Pygmalion's wish.

Pygmalion married the ivory sculpture changed to a woman under Aphrodite's blessing. In Ovid's narrative, they had a daughter, Paphos, from whom the city's name is derived.

In some versions Paphos was a son, and they also had a daughter, Metharme.^[2]

Ovid's mention of Paphos suggests that he was drawing on a more circumstantial account^{[notes 3]} than the source for a passing mention of Pygmalion in Pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheke, a Hellenic mythography of the 2nd-century AD.^{[notes 4]} Perhaps he drew on the lost narrative by Philostephanus that was paraphrased by Clement of Alexandria.^[3] Pygmalion is the Greek version of the Phoenician royal name Pumayyaton, and figures in legend of Paphos in Cyprus.

Parallels in Greek myth

The story of the breath of life in a statue has parallels in the examples of Daedalus, who used quicksilver to install a voice in his statues; of Hephaestus, who created automata for his workshop; of Talos, an artificial man of bronze; and (according to Hesiod) of Pandora, who was made from clay at the behest of Zeus.

The moral anecdote of the "Apega of Nabis", recounted by the historian Polybius, described a supposed mechanical simulacrum of the tyrant's wife, that crushed victims in her embrace.

The trope of a sculpture so lifelike that it seemed about to move was a commonplace with writers on works of art in antiquity. This trope was inherited by writers on art after the Renaissance.

Re-interpretations of Pygmalion

The basic Pygmalion story has been widely transmitted and re-presented in the arts through the centuries. At an unknown date, later authors give as the name of the statue that of the sea-nymph Galatea or Galathea. Goethe calls her Elise, based upon the variants in the story of Dido/Elissa.

A variant of this theme can also be seen in the story of Pinocchio, in which a wooden puppet is transformed into a "real boy", though in this case the puppet possesses sentience prior to its transformation; it is the puppet and not its creator, the woodcarver Mister Geppetto, who beseeches the divine powers for the miracle.

In the final scene of William Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale, a statue of Queen Hermione which comes to life is revealed as Hermione herself, so bringing the play to a conclusion of reconciliations.

In George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion, a modern variant of the myth with a subtle hint of feminism, the underclass flower-girl Eliza Doolittle is metaphorically "brought to life" by a phonetics professor, Henry Higgins, who teaches her to refine her accent and conversation and otherwise conduct herself with upper-class manners in social situations.

Paintings

Pygmalion by Jean-Baptiste Regnault, 1786, Musée National du Château et des Trianons

Miniature from a 14th century manuscript of Pygmalion working on his sculpture

The story has been the subject of notable paintings by Agnolo Bronzino, Jean-Léon Gérôme (Pygmalion and Galatea), Honoré Daumier, Edward Burne-Jones (four major works from 1868–1870, then again in larger versions from 1875–1878 with the title Pygmalion and the Image), Auguste Rodin, Ernest Normand, Paul Delvaux, Francisco Goya, Franz von Stuck, François Boucher, and Thomas Rowlandson, among others. There have also been numerous sculptures of the "awakening".

Literature

Ovid's Pygmalion has inspired many works of literature, some of which are listed below. The popularity of the Pygmalion myth surged in the 19th century.

Poems

England

• John Marston's "Pigmalion", in "The Argument of the Poem" and "The Authour in prayse of his precedent Poem" (1598)^[4]
• John Dryden's poem "Pygmalion and the Statue" (1697–1700)^[5]
• Thomas Lovell Beddoes's "Pygmalion, or the Cyprian Statuary" (1823–25)^[6]
• Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess" (1842)
• William Cox Bennett's poem "Pygmalion" from his work Queen Eleanor's Vengeance and Other Poems (1856)
• Arthur Henry Hallam's poem "Lines Spoken in the Character of Pygmalion" from his work Remains in verse and prose of Arthur Henry Hallam: With a preface and memoir (1863)^[7]
• Robert Buchanan's poem "Pygmalion the Sculptor" in his work Undertones (1864)^[8]
• William Morris's poem "Earthly Paradise" in which he includes the section "Pygmalion and the Image" (1868)^[9]
• William Bell Scott's "Pygmalion"^[10]
• Thomas Woolner's long poem "Pygmalion" (1881)^[11]
• Frederick Tennyson's "Pygmalion" from Daphne and Other Poems (1891)^[12]
• Squire's "Galatea Awakes". (1920s)
• R.M. Montgomery's "Galatea to Pygmalion" (1920s)
• Robert Graves' "Pygmalion to Galatea" (1926) and "Galatea and Pygmalion"^[13]
• Melanie Challenger's "Galatea" (2006)^[14]

Scotland

• Andrew Lang's "The New Pygmalion or the Statue's Choice" (1911)^[10]
• Carol Ann Duffy's poem "Pygmalion's Bride" (1999)^[15]

Ireland

• Emily Henrietta Hickey's A Sculptor and Other Poems (1881)^[16]
• Patrick Kavanagh's "Pygmalion" (1938)
• Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin's "Pygmalion's Image" (1991)

Germany

• Friedrich Schiller's poem "The Ideals" (Die Ideale) (1795-6)^[17]

Romania

• Nichita Stănescu's poem "Către Galateea" (Dreptul la timp) (1965)^[18]

United States

• Sara Jane Lippincott (Grace Greenwood)'s "Pygmalion" (1851)^[19]
• Elizabeth Stuart Phelps' "Galatea" from Harper's Weekly (1884)^[20]
• Edward Rowland Sill's "The Lost Magic" (1900)^[21]
• H.D.'s "Pygmalion" (1913–17)^[22]
• Genevieve Taggard's "Galatea Again" (1929)^[10]
• Albert G. Miller's "Pygmalion" (1945)^[10]
• Harry C. Morris' "Pygmalion" (1956)^[23]
• Melvin H. Bernstein's "Mr. Pygmalion to Miss Galatea: An Interior Monologue" (1970)^[24]
• Katha Pollitt's "Pygmalion" (1979)^[25]
• Joseph Brodsky's "Encore" (1983)^[26]
• Katherine Solomon's "Galatea" (1999)^[27]
• John Hooley's "Pygmalion" (first decade of the 21st century)^[28]
• David Kimel's "Pygmalion" (first decade of the 21st century)^[29]

Canada

• Walid Bitar's poem "Pigmalion" (1993)^[30]

Nicaragua

• Claribel Alegría's "Galatea Before the Mirror" (1993)^[10]

Short stories

• Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "The Birth-Mark" and his similar novella, Rappaccini's Daughter.
• H.P. Lovecraft's "Herbert West–Reanimator"
• Tommaso Landolfi's "La moglie di Gogol" ('The Wife of Gogol')
• John Updike's "Pygmalion"
• E.T.A. Hoffman's "The Sandman"
• Thomas London's "Pygmalion Unbound"
• Stanley Grauman Weinbaum
• Wilfred G's Creation of Chaos "Pygmalion's Spectacles"^[31]
• Jorge Luis Borges's "Las Ruinas Circulares" (Argentina)
• Isaac Asimov's short story Galatea (in his collection Azazel is a parody of the story, where a woman sculptor sculpts her idea of the ideal man)

Novels and plays

• Lloyd C. Douglas's novel "Invitation To Live" (1940)
• William Hazlitt's Liber Amoris: or, the New Pygmalion (1894)
• Richard Powers's novel Galatea 2.2
• Amanda Filipacchi's novel Vapor
• Edith Wharton's The House of Mirth^[32]
• Henry James' The Portrait of a Lady (1880–81)^[32]
• George MacDonald's Phantastes^[33]
• George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion
• Tawfiq el-Hakim's play Pygmalion
• William Schwenck Gilbert's play Pygmalion and Galatea
• Willy Russell's play Educating Rita
• Rousseau's play Pygmalion, scéne lyrique^[34]
• Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's novel Tomorrow's Eve
• Jacinto Grau's play El Señor de Pigmalión (1921)

Other

• Pete Wentz's comic series Fall Out Toy Works
• Grant Morrison's Professor Pyg, who appears in Batman and Robin
• William Moulton Marston's origin of Wonder Woman was inspired by the myth of Pygmalion and Galatea, as she was sculpted by her mother Hippolyta from clay and given life by Aphrodite's breath. The sculpture represents the creative power of a mother's love for a child, passing some of her qualities on to her daughter.
• Chihiro Watanabe's manga series Pygmalion, which started its serialization in 2015 in the magazine Monthly Comic Garden, and Web Comic Beat's.

Opera, ballet, and music

• The story of Pygmalion is the subject of Jean-Philippe Rameau's 1748 opera, Pigmalion.
• It was also the subject of Gaetano Donizetti's first opera, Il Pigmalione.
• Molin produced a ballet-pantomime version of Pygmalion in 1800.
• The ballet Coppélia, about an inventor who makes a life-sized dancing doll, has strong echoes of Pygmalion.
• The great choreographer Marius Petipa and the composer Prince Nikita Trubetskoi created a four-act ballet on the subject called Pygmalion, ou La Statue de Chypre. The ballet was revived in 1895 with the great ballerina Pierina Legnani.
• The English progressive rock group Yes composed "Turn Of The Century" (1977); it tells the story of the sculptor Roan who, in the grief of his wife's death, "molds his passion into clay." The sculpture of his wife comes to life and they fall in love.
• British shoegazing band Slowdive named their third LP Pygmalion in 1995.
• The song "Trial By Fire" by darkwave/gothic band ThouShaltNot recreates the idea of a modern-day Pygmalion with lyrics such as "I sculpt your nature within, I am your Pygmalion" and "I dust away the plaster from off your breathing body...You'll never be the same."
• Mariusz Duda, working under his moniker Lunatic Soul, named a track off of his 2014 album after Pygmalion. Walking on a Flashlight Beam and the longest track, Pygmalion's Ladder, in a general sense, speak of a reclusive individual who struggles to understand the fiction around him, and the ways in which his imagination is affected by this introspective seclusion he has embraced or succumbed to "LunaticSoul" (2014).^[35]
• The progressive house artist Hellberg (Jonathan Hellberg) released a song called 'The Girl' featuring vocalist Cozi Zuehlsdorff in 2015. They have both admitted to having been inspired by the Pygmalion myth when creating the track.

Stage plays

W. S. Gilbert's stage version, 1871

There have also been successful stage-plays based upon the work, such as W. S. Gilbert's Pygmalion and Galatea (1871). It was revived twice, in 1884 and in 1888.

In January, 1872, Ganymede and Galatea opened at the Gaiety Theatre. This was a comic version of Franz von Suppé's Die schöne Galathee, coincidentally with Arthur Sullivan's brother, Fred Sullivan, in the cast.

In March 1872, William Brough's 1867 play Pygmalion; or, The Statue Fair was revived, and in May of that year, a visiting French company produced Victor Massé's Galathée.

In 1883, the musical burlesque Galatea, or Pygmalion Reversed was performed at the Gaiety Theatre with a libretto by Henry Pottinger Stephens and W. Webster, and a score composed by Wilhelm Meyer Lutz.

George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion (1912, staged 1914) owes something to both the Greek Pygmalion and the legend of "King Cophetua and the beggar maid"; in which a king lacks interest in women, but one day falls in love with a young beggar-girl, later educating her to be his queen. Shaw's comedy of manners in turn was the basis for the Broadway musical My Fair Lady (1956).

P. L. Deshpande's play Ti Fulrani ("Queen of Flowers") is also based on Shaw's Pygmalion. The play was a huge success in Marathi theater and has earned many accolades.

Television

• The American TV series My Living Doll portrayed a female robot (Julie Newmar) whose creators attempted to transform her into a "perfect woman".
• The Man from U.N.C.L.E. 3rd season episode "The Galatea Affair" from 1966 is a spoof of My Fair Lady. A crude barroom entertainer (Joan Collins) is taught to behave like a lady. Noel Harrison, son of Rex Harrison, star of the My Fair Lady film, is the guest star.
• The Aerosmith music video for "Hole in My Soul" features a nerdy college student who tries to find the girl of his dreams by creating one in a lab, only to have her leave him.
• The Japanese anime series Bubblegum Crisis: Tokyo 2040 includes a character named Galatea, an artificial life form designed to be the next evolution of the human race.
• In Justice League Unlimited, Emile Hamilton creates a clone of Supergirl, that he names Galatea.
• An episode of the Philippine TV series Love Spell features a teenage boy who falls in love with a mannequin who comes to life when lightning strikes it.
• In the music video for "This Time" by K-pop group Wonder Girls, a designer falls in love with his mannequin, and she comes to life. She runs away, leaving the designer to chase after her.
• In "Fagmalion" a three-part episode of Will and Grace, Will Truman falls in love with a man named Barry whom he sculpts into a more refined gay man following his coming out.
• In King of the Hill Season 7 Episode 9 "Pigmalion" Luanne becomes involved with a psychotic owner of a pork processing plant.
• In Disneys Hercules: The Animated Series, Pygmalion was Hercules' art teacher. His success in crafting a perfect wife for himself prompted Hercules to do the same to create a date for a school dance, naming it Galatea.
• In the "Live Show" episode of 30 Rock the character Jack tries to give up drinking and asks Liz Lemon to comfort him by telling a story. She impersonates Eliza selling flowers to which Jack orders her to leave the room.
• In Pygmoelion,an episode of The Simpsons, Moe gets plastic surgery and watches as his life is rewritten.
• In an episode of So Weird called Still Life, the family is pulled into a painting by wishing to be there.
• In the My Fair Ernest T. Bass episode of The Andy Griffith Show, Andy teaches Ernest T. Bass some manners and tries to pass him off as Andy's more refined cousin from Raleigh at a local society affair.

Interactive fiction

• The text adventure Galatea, by Emily Short, is based on the myth of Galatea.

See also

• Agalmatophilia
• Golem
• Narcissus
• Pinocchio
• Prometheus
• Pygmalion and the Image series
• Pygmalion effect
• Pygmalion of Tyre
• Uncanny valley

Notes

1. The invention of the name Galatea is modern; Falconet's title was Pygmalion aux pieds de sa statue qui s'anime, "Pygmalion at the feet of his statue, which comes to life".
2. See Pygmalion of Tyre.
3. The Greek sources of Ovid's tale are fully discussed at Galatea.
4. Bibliotheke, iii.14.3 simply mentions "Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, king of Cyprus."

References

1. Morford, Mark (2007). "Classical Mythology". Oxford University Press, p. 184
2. Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke, iii.14.3.
3. Clement, Exhortation to the Greeks, 4: "So the well-known Pygmalion of Cyprus fell in love with an ivory statue; it was of Aphrodite and was naked. The man of Cyprus is captivated by its shapeliness and embraces the statue. This is related by Philostephanus".
4. John Marston. The Works of John Marston. Books.google.com. p. 199. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
5. John Dryden (2002-09-01). The Works of John Dryden, Volume VII: Poems, 1697-1700. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
6. Thomas Lovell Beddoes (2009-01-28). The Poetical Works of Thomas Lovell Beddoes: Memoir. Poems collected in 1851 ... Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
7. Arthur Henry Hallam. Remains in Verse and Prose of Arthur Henry Hallam: With a Preface and Memoir. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
8. Robert Williams Buchanan. Sammlung. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
9. "The Earthly Paradise (March-August) Index". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
10. "Poems about Pygmalion and Galatea" (PDF). Shslboyd.pbworks.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
11. Thomas Woolner. Pygmalion. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
12. Frederick Tennyson. Daphne and Other Poems. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
14. "Galatea, Melanie Challenger - Salt". Saltpublishing.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
16. Emily Henrietta Hickey (2006-12-30). A Sculptor, and Other Poems. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
17. The Minor Poems of Schiller of the Second and Third Periods: With a Few of ... Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
18. "Poezii Romanesti". Romanianvoice.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
19. Grace Greenwood (2008-07-17). Poems. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
20. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. "Galatea". Harpers.org. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
21. "Hermione by Edward Rowland Sill - Famous poems, famous poets. - All Poetry". Oldpoetry.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
22. Hilda Doolittle; Louis L. Martz. Collected Poems, 1912-1944. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
23. Harry C. Morris (1956). "Pygmalion". The Kenyon Review. Kenyon College. Vol. 18, No. 1: 123.
24. Melvin H. Bernstein (December 1970). "Mr. Pygmalion to Miss Galatea: An Interior Monologue". AAUP Bulletin. American Association of University Professors. p. 374.
25. Katham Pollitt (April 1979). "Pygmalion". Poetry. Poetry Foundation. Vol. 134, No. 1: 14.
26. "Galatea Encore by Joseph Brodsky - Famous poems, famous poets. - All Poetry". Oldpoetry.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
28. "Pygmalion, a narrative poem by John Hooley". Blackcatpoems.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
29. "PYGMALION, a poem by David Kimel, USA". Voicesnet.org. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
30. Walid Bitar. 2 Guys on Holy Land. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
31. "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pygmalion's Spectacles, by Stanley G. Weinbaum". Gutenberg.org. 2007-10-05. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
32. Judith H. Montgomery (May 1971). "The American Galatea". College English. National Council of Teachers of English. 32, No. 8: 890–899.
33. George Macdonald (2006-07-11). Phantastes: a faerie romance. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
34. Jean-Jacques Rousseau; Horace Coignet. "Pygmalion: scčne lyrique". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.
35. "the albums – lunatic soul". Lunaticsoul.com. Retrieved 2016-11-25.

Further reading

• Essaka Joshua. (2001). Pygmalion and Galatea: The History of a Narrative in English Literature. Ashgate.
• Kenneth Gross. (1992). The Dream of the Moving Statue. Cornell University Press. (A wide-ranging survey of 'living statues' in literature and the arts).
• Jack Burnham. Beyond Modern Sculpture (1982). Allan Lane. (A history of 'living statues' and the fascination with automata - see the introductory chapter: "Sculpture and Automata").
• Ernst Buschor. Vom Sinn der griechischen Standbilder (1942). (Clear discussion of attitudes to sculptural images in classical times).
• John J. Ciofalo. "The Art of Sex and Violence - The Sex and Violence of Art." The Self-Portraits of Francisco Goya. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• John J. Ciofalo. "Unveiling Goya's Rape of Galatea." Art History (December 1995), pp. 477–98.
• Gail Marshall. (1998). Actresses on the Victorian Stage: Feminine Performance and the Galatea Myth. Cambridge University Press.
• Alexandra K. Wettlaufer. (2001). Pen Vs. Paintbrush: Girodet, Balzac, and the Myth of Pygmalion in Post-Revolutionary France. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Danahay, Martin A. (1994) "Mirrors of Masculine Desire: Narcissus and Pygmalion in Victorian Representation". Victorian Poetry, No. 32, 1994: pages 35–53.
• Edward A. Shanken. (2005) "http://artexetra.com/Hot2Bot.pdf Hot 2 Bot: Pygmalion's Lust, the Maharal's Fear, and the Cyborg Future of Art]", Technoetic Arts 3:1: 43-55.
• (2005). Almost Human: Puppets, Dolls and Robots in Contemporary Art, Hunterdon Museum of Art, Clinton, New Jersey. (Catalogue for a group exhibition March 20 - June 12, 2005)
• Morford, Mark. (2007). "Classical Mythology Eighth Edition". Oxford University Press
• Hersey, George L (2009). "Falling in love with statues: artificial humans from Pygmalion to the present", Chicago, 2009, ISBN 978-0-226-32779-2
• Law, Helen H. (1932). "The Name Galatea in the Pygmalion Myth", The Classical Journal, Vol. 27 No. 5 (Feb. 1932), published by The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, JSTOR 3290617

External links

• English translation of Ovid's poem
• English translation of Ovid's poem
• Latin original, lines 243-297, at The Latin Library.com
• Shakespeare reference