Sisyphus

For other uses, see Sisyphus (disambiguation).
Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attica black-figure amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen[1]

In Greek mythology Sisyphus (/ˈsɪsᵻfəs/;[2] Greek: Σίσυφος, Sísuphos) was the king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill, only to watch it come back to hit him, repeating this action for eternity. Through the classical influence on modern culture, tasks that are both laborious and futile are therefore described as Sisyphean (/ˌsɪsᵻˈfiːən/).

Etymology

R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word sophos (σοφός, "wise").[3] Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from sisys (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.[4]

Mythology

Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete. He was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth).[5] He was the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Almus, and Thersander by the nymph Merope, the brother of Salmoneus, and the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus.[5][6][7] King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed travellers and guests, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus's domain. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule.

Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted with the Oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus's daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore by him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on eventually using them to dethrone her father.

King Sisyphus also betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of Aegina[8] (an Asopides who was taken away by Zeus) to her father (the river god Asopus) in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis.

Zeus then ordered Thanatos, Death, to chain King Sisyphus down below in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Hermes, whose job it was to guide souls to the Underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. King Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on earth. This caused an uproar especially for Ares (who was annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die), and so he intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned King Sisyphus over to Thanatos.[9]

In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.[10]

Before King Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused King Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, King Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Corinth, the spirit of King Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral (as a loving wife should). When King Sisyphus refused to return to the Underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes. In another version of the myth, Persephone, goddess of the Underworld, was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.[11]

In Philoctetes by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the Odyssey) upon having returned from the dead.

As a punishment for his trickery, King Sisyphus was made to endlessly roll a huge boulder up a steep hill.[5][12][13] The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for King Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Zeus accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from King Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as Sisyphean. King Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.[14]

Interpretations

Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649

According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.[15] Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.[15] The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[16] Søren Kierkegaard saw the myth as pertaining to anything a person loves too much: "It is comic that a mentally disordered man picks up any piece of granite and carries it around because he thinks it is money, and in the same way it is comic that Don Juan has 1,003 mistresses, for the number simply indicates that they have no value. Therefore, one should stay within one’s means in the use of the word “love."[17] Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach[18] that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese,[19] building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphos" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill.

In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.[20]

Literary interpretations

Sisyphys (1548–49) by Titian, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain
Sisypher dwarves by Tomasz Moczek in Wrocław

Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the Iliad and Book XI of the Odyssey.[7][13]

Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("you sat upon your rock, Sisyphus").[21]

Though purported to be one of the dialogues of Greek philosopher Plato, the Sisyphus is generally believed to be apocryphal, possibly written by one of his pupils. In his Apology, Socrates considers Sisyphus to be a wise man he may meet in the afterlife.

Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[22] The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.[23] James Clement van Pelt, co-founder of Yale's Initiative in Religion, Science & Technology,[24] suggests that Sisyphus also personifies humanity and its disastrous pursuit of perfection by any means necessary, in which the great rock repeatedly rushing down the mount symbolizes the accelerating pace of unsustainable civilization toward cataclysmic collapse and cultural oblivion that ends each historical age and restarts the sisyphean cycle.[25]

Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons.[26]

See also

References

  1. ↑ museum inv. 1494
  2. ↑ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  3. ↑ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii.
  4. ↑ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021
  5. 1 2 3 "Apollodorus, Library, 1.9". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
  6. ↑ "Apollodorus, Library, 1.7". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
  7. 1 2 Homer, Iliad VI 152ff
  8. ↑ Hamilton, Edith. "Brief Myths." Mythology.
  9. ↑ http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/0195153448/studentresources/chapters/ch25/?view=usa
  10. ↑ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Retrieved 2014-02-19.
  11. ↑ Bernard Evslin's gods, Demigods & Demons, 209–210
  12. ↑ "Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
  13. 1 2 Odyssey, xi. 593
  14. ↑ Pausanias x. 31
  15. 1 2  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  16. ↑ De Rerum Natura III
  17. ↑ Stages on Life's Way, 1845 p. 293
  18. ↑ Revue archéologique, 1904
  19. ↑ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1994, pp. 45–52.
  20. ↑ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7.
  21. ↑ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44.
  22. ↑ Karl, Frederick. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2
  23. ↑ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686.
  24. ↑ "About Us - Initiative in Religion, Science and Technology". Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  25. ↑ "On the Brink of the Volcano: Convergence, Ephemeralization, and the Telos of Technology", p. 36-51, in Henk Jochemsen and Jan van der Stoep, Eds, Different Cultures, One World (Amsterdam, NL: Rozenberg Publishers, 2010).
  26. ↑ Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens.
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