Arab slave trade

The main slave routes in Africa during the Middle Ages.

Arab slave trade was the practice of slavery in the Arab world, mainly in Western Asia, North Africa, Southeast Africa, the Horn of Africa and certain parts of Europe (such as Iberia and Sicily) beginning in the era of the Roman Empire and continuing until the early second half of the 20th century. The trade was conducted through slave markets in the Middle East, North Africa and the Horn of Africa, with the slaves captured mostly from Africa's interior.

Scope of the trade

A 19th-century European engraving of Arab slave-trading caravan transporting African slaves across the Sahara.

The trade of slaves across the Sahara and across the Indian Ocean also has a long history, beginning with the control of sea routes by Arab and Swahili traders on the Swahili Coast during the ninth century (see Sultanate of Zanzibar). These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj) from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania and brought them to the littoral.[1][2] There, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the Unguja and Pemba islands.[3]

The captives were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.[3][4][5] The Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labor, Bantu slaves bought by Arab slave traders from southeastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, European colonies in the Far East, the Indian Ocean islands, Ethiopia and Somalia.[6][7]

Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.[2][8] The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in Iraq (see Zanj Rebellion). Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanj) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Srivijaya in Java.[9]

The Zanj Rebellion, a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 AD near the city of Basra (also known as Basara), situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the African Great Lakes region and areas further south in East Africa.[10] It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".[11] The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.[12] As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labor work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labor shortage led to an increased slave market.

It is certain that large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century, though not all of the slaves involved were Zanj. There is little evidence of what part of eastern Africa the Zanj came from, for the name is here evidently used in its general sense, rather than to designate the particular stretch of the coast, from about 3°N. to 5°S., to which the name was also applied.[13]

The Zanj were needed to take care of:

the Tigris-Euphrates delta, which had become abandoned marshland as a result of peasant migration and repeated flooding, could be reclaimed through intensive labor. Wealthy proprietors "had received extensive grants of tidal land on the condition that they would make it arable." Sugar cane was prominent among the products of their plantations, particularly in Khūzestān Province. Zanj also worked the salt mines of Mesopotamia, especially around Basra.[14]

Their jobs were to clear away the nitrous topsoil that made the land arable. The working conditions were also considered to be extremely harsh and miserable. Many other people were imported into the region, besides Zanj.[15]

European and American historians assert that between the 8th and 19th century, 10 to 18 million people were bought by Arab slave traders and taken from Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert.[16][17]

A female Bantu slave in Mogadishu (1882–1883).

Arabs also enslaved Europeans. According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured between the 16th and 19th centuries by Barbary corsairs, who were vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and sold as slaves.[18][19][20] These slaves were captured mainly from seaside villages from Italy, Spain, Portugal and also from more distant places like France or England, the Netherlands, Ireland and even Iceland. They were also taken from ships stopped by the pirates.[21]

The effects of these attacks were devastating: France, England, and Spain each lost thousands of ships. Long stretches of the Spanish and Italian coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants, because of frequent pirate attacks. Pirate raids discouraged settlement along the coast until the 19th century.[22][23]

Periodic Arab raiding expeditions were sent from Islamic Iberia to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[24]

The Ottoman wars in Europe and Tatar raids (although not Arabic themselves) brought large numbers of European Christian slaves into the Muslim world.[25][26][27] In 1769 a last major Tatar raid saw the capture of 20,000 Russian and Polish slaves.[28]

The "Oriental" or "Arab" slave trade is sometimes called the "Islamic" slave trade, but Patrick Manning states that a religious imperative was not the driver of the slavery. However, if a non-Muslim population refuses to pay the jizya protection/subjugation tax, that population is considered to be at war with the Muslim "ummah" (nation), and it becomes legal under Islamic law to take slaves from that non-Muslim population. Usage of the terms "Islamic trade" or "Islamic world" has been disputed by some Muslims as it treats Africa as outside Islam, or a negligible portion of the Islamic world.[29] According to European historians, propagators of Islam in Africa often revealed a cautious attitude towards proselytizing because of its effect in reducing the potential reservoir of slaves.[30]

The subject merges with the Oriental slave trade, which followed two main routes in the Middle Ages:

The Arab slave trade originated before Islam and lasted more than a millennium.[34][35][36] To meet the demand for plantation labor, these captured Zanj slaves were shipped to the Arabian peninsula and the Near East, among other areas.[37]

14 to 20 million Africans are estimated to have been killed in the slave trade.[35][38]

Sources and historiography of the slave trade

The Arab trade of Zanj (Bantu) slaves in Southeast Africa is one of the oldest slave trades, predating the European transatlantic slave trade by 700 years.[2][8][39] Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers by their owners, while female slaves, including those from Africa, were long traded to the Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms by Arab and Oriental traders as concubines and servants. Arab, African and Oriental traders were involved in the capture and transport of slaves northward across the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region into the Middle East, Persia and the Far East.[2][8]

The most significant Jewish involvement in the slave-trade was in Al-Andalus, as Islamic Spain was called.[40] According to historian Alan W. Fisher, there was a guild of Jewish slave traders in Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The guild had about 2000 members.[28] The city was a major center of the slave trade in the 15th century and later. By 1475 most of the slaves were provided by Tatar raids on Slavic villages.[28] Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Poland-Lithuania and Russia over the period 1500–1700.[41]

7th century to 20th century

Giulio Rosati, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, Circassian beauties.

From the 7th century until around the 1960s, the Arab slave trade continued in one form or another. Historical accounts and references to slave-owning nobility in Arabia, Yemen and elsewhere are frequent into the early 1920s.[39]

In 641 during the Baqt, a treaty between the Christian state of Makuria and the Muslim rulers of Egypt, the Nubians agreed to give Arab traders more privileges of trade in addition to a share in their slave trading.[42]

In the Ottoman Empire during the mid-14th century, slaves were traded in special marketplaces called "Esir" or "Yesir" that were located in most towns and cities. It is said that Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" established the first Ottoman slave market in Constantinople in the 1460s, probably where the former Byzantine slave market had stood. According to Nicolas de Nicolay, there were slaves of all ages and both sexes, they were displayed naked to be thoroughly checked by possible buyers.[43]

Domestic slavery was not as common as military slavery.[44] On the basis of a list of estates belonging to members of the ruling class kept in Edirne between 1545 and 1659, the following data was collected: out of 93 estates, 41 had slaves.[44] However rural slavery was largely a phenomenon endemic to the Caucasus region, which was carried to Anatolia and Rumelia after the Circassian migration in 1864.[45] Conflicts frequently emerged within the immigrant community and the Ottoman Establishment intervened on the side of the slaves at selective times.[46]

The Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East until the early eighteenth century. In a process called "harvesting of the steppe", Crimean Tatars enslaved Slavic peasants. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage, and capture slaves into "jasyr".[26] The borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. It is estimated that up to 75% of the Crimean population consisted of slaves or freed slaves.[47]

In Somalia, the inhabiting Bantus are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon, and whose members were later captured and sold into the Arab slave trade.[48] From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000–50,000 Bantu slaves are thought to have been sold from the slave market of Zanzibar to the Somali coast.[49] Most of the slaves were from the Majindo, Makua, Nyasa, Yao, Zalama, Zaramo and Zigua ethnic groups of Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi. Collectively, these Bantu groups are known as Mushunguli, which is a term taken from Mzigula, the Zigua tribe's word for "people" (the word holds multiple implied meanings including "worker", "foreigner", and "slave").[6]

Arab captors and workers in Zanzibar, now part of Tanzania in East Africa.

Bantu adult and children slaves (referred to collectively as jareer by their Somali masters[50]) were purchased in the slave market exclusively to do undesirable work on plantation grounds.[51] They were made to work in plantations owned by Somalis along the southern Shebelle and Jubba rivers, harvesting lucrative cash crops such as grain and cotton.[52] Bantu slaves toiled under the control of and separately from their Somali patrons.[53]

In terms of legal considerations, Bantu slaves were devalued. Somali social mores strongly discouraged, censured and looked down upon any kind of sexual contact with Bantu slaves. Freedom for these plantation slaves was also often acquired through escape.[51]

As part of a broader practice then common among slave owners in Northeast Africa, some Somali masters in the hinterland near Mogadishu reportedly used to circumcise their female slaves so as to increase the latter's perceived value in the slave market. In 1609, the Portuguese missionary João dos Santos reported that one such group had a "custome to sew up their females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their masters put in them."[54]

The Italian colonial administration abolished slavery in Somalia at the turn of the 20th century. Some Bantu groups, however, remained enslaved well until the 1930s, and continued to be despised and discriminated against by large parts of Somali society.[55]

The historical routes of the Ethiopian slave trade.

In Ethiopia, during the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, slaves shipped from there had a high demand in the markets of the Arabian peninsula and elsewhere in the Middle East. They were mostly domestic servants, though some served as agricultural labourers, or as water carriers, herdsmen, seamen, camel drivers, porters, washerwomen, masons, shop assistants and cooks. The most fortunate of the men worked as the officials or bodyguards of the ruler and emirs, or as business managers for rich merchants.[56]

They enjoyed significant personal freedom and occasionally held slaves of their own. Besides Javanese and Chinese girls brought in from the Far East, "red" (non-black) Ethiopian young females were among the most valued concubines. The most beautiful ones often enjoyed a wealthy lifestyle, and became mistresses of the elite or even mothers to rulers.[56] The principal sources of these slaves, all of whom passed through Matamma, Massawa and Tadjoura on the Red Sea, were the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, in the Oromo and Sidama country.[57]

The most important outlet for Ethiopian slaves was undoubtedly Massawa. Trade routes from Gondar, located in the Ethiopian Highlands led to Massawa via Adwa. Slave drivers from Gondar took 100-200 slaves in a single trip to Massawa, the majority of whom were female.[57]

A small number of eunuchs were also acquired by the slave traders in the southern parts of Ethiopia.[58] Mainly consisting of young children, they led the most privileged lives and commanded the highest prices in the Islamic global markets because of their rarity. They served in the harems of the affluent or guarded holy sites.[56] Some of the young boys had become eunuchs due to the battle traditions that were at the time endemic to parts of southern Ethiopia. However, the majority came from the Badi Folia principality in the Jimma region, situated to the southeast of Enarea. The local Oromo/Galla rulers were so disturbed by the custom that they drove out of their kingdoms all who practiced it.[58]

In the Central African Republic, during the 16th and 17th centuries Muslim slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. Their captives were slaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South the Ubanqui and Congo rivers.[59][60]

The Arab slave trade in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea long predated the arrival of any significant number of Europeans on the African continent.[39][61]

The purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the Barbary states.

Some descendants of African slaves brought to the Middle East during the slave-trade still live there today, and are aware of their African origins.[62][63]

The North African slave markets traded also in European slaves. The European slaves were acquired by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield as Iceland. Men, women, and children were captured, to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned. Ohio State University history Professor Robert Davis describes the white slave trade as minimized by most modern historians in his book Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan).[64]

Davis estimates that 1 million to 1.25 million White Christian Europeans were enslaved in North Africa, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th, by slave traders from Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli alone (these numbers do not include the European people which were enslaved by Morocco and by other raiders and traders of the Mediterranean Sea coast),[64] and roughly 700 Americans were held captive in this region as slaves between 1785 and 1815.[65] 16th- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.[66] In the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly. When the European slave trade ended around the 1850s, the slave trade to the east picked up significantly only to be ended with European colonization of Africa around 1900.[67]

In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."[68]

David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century: "To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility ... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead ... We came upon a man dead from starvation ... The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves."[69] [70] Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets of Zanzibar.[32][33][71][72] Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[73]

Livingstone wrote in a letter to the editor of the New York Herald:

And if my disclosures regarding the terrible Ujijian slavery should lead to the suppression of the East Coast slave trade, I shall regard that as a greater matter by far than the discovery of all the Nile sources together.[74]

As recently as the 1950s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 450,000 — approximately 20% of the population.[75] During the Second Sudanese Civil War people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.[76] Slavery in Mauritania was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981.[77] It was finally criminalized in August 2007.[78] It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions which some consider to be "slavery", namely, many of them used as bonded labour due to poverty.[79]

In 1953, slaves accompanied sheikhs from Qatar attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II and they did so again on another visit five years later.[80]

Arab slaves

Arabs were sometimes made into slaves in the Muslim world[81][82] in spite of customs against it. Sometimes castration was done on Arab slaves. In Mecca Arab women were sold as slaves according to Ibn Butlan and West Africans had slave girls of Arab origin.[83] An Arab Damascene girl was a slave to an African black ruler in Mali who was encountered by Ibn Battuta.[84] According to al-Maqrizi, slave girls with light skin were sold to West Africans on hajj so it was normal for "white" slaves to be seen in West Africa. Arabic was spoken by the Damascus slave girl of Arab origin to Ibn Battuta in Mali.[85] Ibn Battuta met her in 1353 near Timbuktu.[86] She was described as "an Arab girl from Damascus who spoke to me in Arabic" by Ibn Battuta. Slave girls of Ethiopian and Turkish origin were obtained by the West Africans arriving with Mansa Musa according to Al-Maqrizi.[87] Battuta specified that she was fluent in Arabic, from Damascus, and of Arab origin.[88] The Arab girl's black African master's name was Farbá Sulaymán.[89] The West Africans with Mansu Musa were in Cairo when they bought the slave girls of Ethiopian and Turkish origin, it was in Mali where the Damascene slave Arab girl was encountered by Ibn Battuta, and Egyptian procured Turkish slaves were in Mali according to Al-Umari which show that black Africans in the Sahara had slaves of North African, Turkish, and Middle Eastern origin.[90] Besides his Damascus slave girl and a secretary fluent in Arabic, Arabic was also comprehended by Farba himself.[91]

A Chinese non-Muslim man had a female concubine who was of Muslim Arab Hadhrami Sayyid origin in Solo, the Dutch East Indies, in 1913 which was scandalous in the eyes of Ahmad Surkati and his Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya.[92][93]

Medieval Arabic sources

A 1816 illustration of Christian slaves in Algiers.

These are given in chronological order. Scholars and geographers from the Arab world had been travelling to Africa since the time of Muhammad in the 7th century.

A slave market in Khartoum, Sudan, c. 1876.

European texts (16th–19th centuries)

Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma River in Mozambique.

Other sources

Historical and geographical context

The Slave Market (c. 1866), painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme.

The Islamic world

Islamic Sharia law allowed slavery but prohibited slavery involving other preexisting Muslims; as a result, the main target for slavery were the people who lived in the frontier areas of Islam in Africa.[94] The conquests of the Arab armies and the expansion of the Islamic state that followed have always resulted in the capture of war prisoners who were subsequently set free or turned into slaves or Raqeeq (رقيق) and servants rather than taken as prisoners as was the Islamic tradition in wars.

Once taken as slaves, they had to be dealt with in accordance with Islamic law especially during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. According to that law, slaves were allowed to earn their living if they opted for that, otherwise it is the owner’s (master) duty to provide for that. They also could not be forced to earn money for their masters unless with an agreement between the slave and the master.[95]

This concept is called مخارجة (mukhārajah) (Lane: "And خَارَجَهُ He made an agreement with him, namely, his slave that he (the latter) should pay him a certain impost at the expiration of every month; the slave being left at liberty to work: in which case the slave is termed عَبْدٌ مُخَارِجٌ") in Islamic law. If slaves agree to that and they would like the money they earn to be counted toward their emancipation, then this has to be written in the form of a contract between the slave and the master. This is called مكاتبة (mukātaba) in Islamic jurisprudence which is only, by consensus, a recommendation,[95] and accepting a request for a mukātaba from slaves is thus not obligatory for masters.[96] Although the owner did not have to comply with it, was considered praiseworthy to do so[97]

The framework of Islamic civilization was a well-developed network of towns and oasis trading centers with the market (souq, bazaar) at its heart. These towns were inter-connected by a system of roads crossing semi-arid regions or deserts. The routes were traveled by convoys, and slaves formed part of this caravan traffic.

In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade, where the male-female ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade instead usually had a higher female-to-male ratio. This suggests a general preference for female slaves. Concubinage and reproduction served as incentives for importing female slaves (often Caucasian), though many were also imported mainly for performing household tasks.[98]

Arab views on African people

From Arab literature, manifestations of racism and racist discrimination subsequently followed within the Arab world.[99] For example, an Arab poet in the 7th century wrote: "The blacks do not earn their pay by good deeds, and are not of good repute; The children of a stinking Nubian black—God put no light in their complexions!"[100]

Ethnic prejudices developed among Arabs for at least two reasons: 1) their extensive conquests and slave trade;[99] and 2) the influence of Aristotle's idea of final causes which argues that slaves are slaves by nature.[101] A refinement of Aristotle's view was put forward by Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna, particularly in regards to Turkic and black peoples;[99] and the influence of ideas from the early mediaeval Geonic academies regarding divisions among mankind between the three sons of Noah.

However, ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned people, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned "ruddy people" (including Persians, Turks and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as "swarthy people".[102] The concept of an Arab identity itself did not exist until modern times.[103] According to Arnold J. Toynbee: "The extinction of race consciousness as between Muslims is one of the outstanding achievements of Islam and in the contemporary world there is, as it happens, a crying need for the propagation of this Islamic virtue."[104]

By the 14th century, an overwhelming number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to prejudice against black people in the works of several Arabic historians and geographers. For example, the Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) wrote: "It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."[105]

Egyptian slavemaster and Waswahili slave.

Ibn Battuta who visited the ancient kingdom of Mali in the mid-14th century recounts that the local inhabitants vie with each other in the number of slaves and servants they have, and was himself given a slave boy as a "hospitality gift."[106]

According to one professor, Abdelmajid Hannoum at Wesleyan University, the view that Arab scholars and geographers from this time period held racist attitudes are the result of mistranslations, stating that such attitudes were not prevalent until the 18th and 19th century.[107]

Africa: 8th through 19th centuries

In April 1998, Elikia M’bokolo, wrote in Le Monde diplomatique. "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"[108]

In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails.

A Zanj slave gang in Zanzibar (1889).

Geography of the slave trade

"Supply" zones

A photograph of a slave boy in Zanzibar. 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence. ' c. 1890.

There is historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across Christian Europe and beyond to even as far north as the British Isles and Iceland (see the book titled White Gold by Giles Milton).[114] The majority of slaves traded across the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.[115] The Barbary pirates continued to capture slaves from Europe and, to an extent, North America, from the 16th to 19th centuries.

Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central Asia, mainly of Turkic or Tartar origin. Many of these slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite rank.

Routes

According to professor Ibrahima Baba Kaké there were four main slavery routes to the Arab world, from east to west of Africa, from the Maghreb to the Sudan, from Tripolitania to central Sudan and from Egypt to the Middle East.[117] Caravan trails, set up in the 9th century, went past the oasis of the Sahara; travel was difficult and uncomfortable for reasons of climate and distance. Since Roman times, long convoys had transported slaves as well as all sorts of products to be used for barter. To protect against attacks from desert nomads, slaves were used as an escort. Any who slowed down the progress of the caravan were killed.

Dhows were used to transport goods to Oman.

Historians know less about the sea routes. From the evidence of illustrated documents, and travellers' tales, it seems that people travelled on dhows or jalbas, Arab ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea. Crossing the Indian Ocean required better organisation and more resources than overland transport. Ships coming from Zanzibar made stops on Socotra or at Aden before heading to the Persian Gulf or to India. Slaves were sold as far away as India, or even China: there was a colony of Arab merchants in Canton. Serge Bilé cites a 12th-century text which tells us that most well-to-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages and demons because of their physical appearance. Although Chinese slave traders bought slaves (Seng Chi i.e. the Zanj[9]) from Arab intermediaries and "stocked up" directly in coastal areas of present-day Somalia, the local Somalis—referred to as Baribah and Barbaroi (Berbers) by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively (see Periplus of the Erythraean Sea),[8][118][119] and no strangers to capturing, owning and trading slaves themselves[52]—were not among them:[120]

One important commodity being transported by the Arab dhows to Somalia was slaves from other parts of East Africa. During the nineteenth century, the East African slave trade grew enormously due to demands by Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders and raiders moved throughout eastern and central Africa to meet the rising demand for enslaved men, women, and children. Somalia did not supply slaves -- as part of the Islamic world Somalis were at least nominally protected by the religious tenet that free Muslims cannot be enslaved -- but Arab dhows loaded with human cargo continually visited Somali ports.[121]

Barter

Cowry shells were used as money in the slave trade.

Slaves were often bartered for objects of various kinds: in the Sudan, they were exchanged for cloth, trinkets and so on. In the Maghreb, they were swapped for horses. In the desert cities, lengths of cloth, pottery, Venetian glass slave beads, dyestuffs and jewels were used as payment. The trade in black slaves was part of a diverse commercial network. Alongside gold coins, cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean or the Atlantic (Canaries, Luanda) were used as money throughout sub-saharan Africa (merchandise was paid for with sacks of cowries).[122]

Slave markets and fairs

A 13th-century slave market in Yemen.

Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the Arab World. In 1416, al-Maqrizi told how pilgrims coming from Takrur (near the Senegal River) had brought 1,700 slaves with them to Mecca. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli and Cairo. Sales were held in public places or in souks.

Potential buyers made a careful examination of the "merchandise": they checked the state of health of a person who was often standing naked with wrists bound together. In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines happened in private houses. Prices varied according to the slave's quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of the British research ship Ternate, visited such a market in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:

'The show' commences about four o'clock in the afternoon. The slaves, set off to the best advantage by having their skins cleaned and burnished with cocoa-nut oil, their faces painted with red and white stripes and the hands, noses, ears and feet ornamented with a profusion of bracelets of gold and silver and jewels, are ranged in a line, commencing with the youngest, and increasing to the rear according to their size and age. At the head of this file, which is composed of all sexes and ages from 6 to 60, walks the person who owns them; behind and at each side, two or three of his domestic slaves, armed with swords and spears, serve as guard.

Thus ordered the procession begins, and passes through the market-place and the principle streets... when any of them strikes a spectator's fancy the line immediately stops, and a process of examination ensues, which, for minuteness, is unequalled in any cattle market in Europe. The intending purchaser having ascertained there is no defect in the faculties of speech, hearing, etc., that there is no disease present, next proceeds to examine the person; the mouth and the teeth are first inspected and afterwards every part of the body in succession, not even excepting the breasts, etc., of the girls, many of whom I have seen handled in the most indecent manner in the public market by their purchasers; indeed there is every reasons to believe that the slave-dealers almost universally force the young girls to submit to their lust previous to their being disposed of. From such scenes one turns away with pity and indignation.[123]

Towns and ports involved in the slave trade

Legacy

See also: Afro-Arab

The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous debates amongst historians. For one thing, specialists are undecided on the number of Africans taken from their homes; this is difficult to resolve because of a lack of reliable statistics: there was no census system in medieval Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the 16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet these record books were often falsified. Historians have to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alencastro states that there were 8 million slaves taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Oriental and the Trans-Saharan routes.[124]

Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same period and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen's work.[125] Ronald Segal estimates between 11.5 and 14 million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade.[126][127][128]

See also

References

This article was initially translated from the featured French wiki article "Traite musulmane" on 19 May 2006.
  1. ↑ Ochiengʼ, William Robert (1975). Eastern Kenya and Its Invaders. East African Literature Bureau. p. 76. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Bethwell A. Ogot, Zamani: A Survey of East African History, (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104
  3. 1 2 Lodhi, Abdulaziz (2000). Oriental influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. p. 17. ISBN 9173463779.
  4. ↑ John Donnelly Fage and William Tordoff (December 2001). A History of Africa (4 ed.). Budapest: Routledge. p. 258. ISBN 978-0415252485.
  5. ↑ Edward R. Tannenbaum, Guilford Dudley (1973). A History of World Civilizations. Wiley. p. 615. ISBN 0471844802.
  6. 1 2 Refugee Reports, November 2002, Volume 23, Number 8
  7. ↑ Gwyn Campbell, The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2003), p.ix
  8. 1 2 3 4 F.R.C. Bagley et al., The Last Great Muslim Empires, (Brill: 1997), p.174
  9. 1 2 Roland Oliver, Africa in the Iron Age: c.500 BC-1400 AD, (Cambridge University Press: 1975), p.192
  10. ↑ Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 585. ISBN 0313332738.
  11. ↑ Asquith, Christina. "Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict - 868-883 Ad - slave revolt in Iraq". Questia.com. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  12. ↑ "Islam, From Arab To Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era". History-world.org. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  13. ↑ Talhami, Ghada Hashem (1 January 1977). "The Zanj Rebellion Reconsidered". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 10 (3): 443–461. doi:10.2307/216737. JSTOR 216737.
  14. ↑ "the Zanj: Towards a History of the Zanj Slaves' Rebellion". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  15. ↑ "Hidden Iraq". "William Cobb".
  16. ↑ "Focus on the slave trade", BBC
  17. ↑ "The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is — and it's not over", National Review
  18. ↑ Robert C. Davis (December 2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 45. ISBN 0333719662. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  19. ↑ Jeff Grabmeier (8 March 2004). "When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggest White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed". researchnews.osu.edu. Columbus, Ohio: OSU News Research Archive. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  20. ↑ Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
  21. ↑ "17th-century Icelandic accounts of Barbary or "Turkish" raids, first in Turkish and then English." (PDF). Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  22. ↑ "History - British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  23. ↑ Full Name. ""Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates" by Christopher Hitchens, ''City Journal'' Spring 2007". City-journal.org. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  24. ↑ James William Brodman. "''Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier''". Libro.uca.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  25. ↑ "Supply of Slaves". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  26. 1 2 "Soldier Khan". Avalanchepress.com. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  27. ↑ "The living legacy of jihad slavery", American Thinker
  28. 1 2 3 Mikhail Kizilov. "Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources". Oxford University. pp. 7–28.
  29. ↑ Manning (1990) p.10
  30. ↑ Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World, New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987, page 28.
  31. ↑ "Battuta's Trip: Journey to West Africa (1351 - 1353)". Web.archive.org. 2010-06-28. Archived from the original on June 28, 2010. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  32. 1 2 Susi O'Neill. "The blood of a nation of Slaves in Stone Town". www.pilotguides.com. Globe Trekker. Archived from the original on December 25, 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  33. 1 2 Kevin Mwachiro (30 March 2007). "BBC Remembering East African slave raids". Nairobi: BBC. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  34. ↑ "Know about Islamic Slavery in Africa" Archived October 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  35. 1 2 "The Forgotten Holocaust: The Eastern Slave Trade". Archived from the original on 2009-10-25.
  36. ↑ Irfan Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Dumbarton Oaks, 2002, p. 364 documents; Ghassanid Arabs seizing and selling 20,000 Jewish Samaritans as slaves in the year 529, before the rise of Islam.
  37. ↑ Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Volumes 21-22. 1991. p. 87. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  38. ↑ Patrick Manning, "The Slave Trade: The Formal Dermographics of a Global System" in Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman (eds), The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe (Duke University Press, 1992), pp. 117-44, online at pp. 119-20.
  39. 1 2 3 Mintz, S. Digital History Slavery, Facts & Myths
  40. 1 2 "SLAVE-TRADE - JewishEncyclopedia.com".
  41. ↑ Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.
  42. ↑ Jay Sapulding. "Medieval Christian Nubia and the Islamic World: A Reconsideration of the Baqt Treaty," International Journal of African Historical Studies XXVIII, 3 (1995)
  43. ↑ "Fischer W. Alan (1978) The sale of slaves in the Ottoman Empire: Markets and state taxes on slave sales, some preliminary considerations. Bogazici Universitesi Dergisi, Beseri Bilimler - Humanities, vol. 6, pp. 150-151." (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 11, 2012. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  44. 1 2 "In the Service of the State and Military Class". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  45. ↑ ""Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, August 6, 1856". Chnm.gmu.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  46. ↑ "Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Kölelik". Archived from the original on 2006-02-21. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
  47. ↑ "Historical survey > Slave societies". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  48. ↑ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Bantu" (PDF). Unhcr.org. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  49. ↑ "The Somali Bantu: Their History and Culture" (PDF). Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  50. ↑ Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. 83-84
  51. 1 2 Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), pp. unknown.
  52. 1 2 Henry Louis Gates, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, (Oxford University Press: 1999), p.1746
  53. ↑ Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), p. 120
  54. ↑ Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
  55. ↑ David D. Laitin (1 May 1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. University of Chicago Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-226-46791-7. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  56. 1 2 3 Campbell, Gwyn (2004). Abolition and Its Aftermath in the Indian Ocean Africa and Asia. Psychology Press. p. 121. ISBN 0203493028.
  57. 1 2 Clarence-Smith, edited by William Gervase (1989). The Economics of the Indian Ocean slave trade in the nineteenth century (1. publ. in Great Britain. ed.). London, England: Frank Cass. ISBN 0714633593.
  58. 1 2 Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769-1855. Praeger. p. 56.
  59. ↑ International Business Publications, USA (7 February 2007). Central African Republic Foreign Policy and Government Guide (World Strategic and Business Information Library). 1. Int'l Business Publications. p. 47. ISBN 1433006219. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
  60. ↑ Alistair Boddy-Evans. Central Africa Republic Timeline – Part 1: From Prehistory to Independence (13 August 1960), A Chronology of Key Events in Central Africa Republic. About.com
  61. ↑ Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, in Les Collections de l'Histoire (April 2001) says:"la traite vers l'Océan indien et la Méditerranée est bien antérieure à l'irruption des Européens sur le continent"
  62. ↑ Labbe, Theola (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-29.
  63. ↑ Susan Beckerleg, translated by Salah Al Zaroo. "Hidden History, Secret Present: The Origins And Status Of African Palestinians". The Health Promotion Research Unit and The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Retrieved 2015-04-29.
  64. 1 2 Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800.
  65. ↑ Adams, Charles Hansford (2005). The Narrative of Robert Adams: A Barbary Captive. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. xlv–xlvi. ISBN 978-0-521-603-73-7.
  66. ↑ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804
  67. ↑ Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. London: Cambridge.
  68. ↑ "Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt". Ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. 2015-08-25. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  69. ↑ Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience 5-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 0195170555.
  70. ↑ David Livingstone (2006). "The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death". Echo Library. p.46. ISBN 1-84637-555-X
  71. ↑ "David Livingstone; Christian History Institute". Archived from the original on 2008-09-20.
  72. ↑ "Zanzibar". Archived from the original on 24 October 2009.
  73. ↑ "Swahili Coast". .nationalgeographic.com. 17 October 2002.
  74. ↑ Stanley Henry M., How I Found Livingstone; travels, adventures, and discoveries in Central Africa, including an account of four months' residence with Dr. Livingstone. (1871)
  75. ↑ "£400 for a Slave". Worldsocialism.org. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  76. ↑ "Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan". US Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
  77. ↑ Reuters Editorial (2007-03-22). "Slavery still exists in Mauritania". Reuters.com. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  78. ↑ "Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law". BBC News. 2007-08-09. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  79. ↑ "The Abolition season", BBC World Service
  80. ↑ Gareth Wilson (2010). "The Plain Truths of Religion". AuthorHouse. p.328. ISBN 978-1-4520-0474-7
  81. ↑ Muhammad A. J. Beg, The "serfs" of Islamic society under the Abbasid regime, Islamic Culture, 49, 2, 1975, p. 108
  82. ↑ Owen Rutter (1986). The pirate wind: tales of the sea-robbers of Malaya. Oxford University Press. p. 140.
  83. ↑ W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0.
  84. ↑ Humphrey J. Fisher (1 August 2001). Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa. NYU Press. pp. 182–. ISBN 978-0-8147-2716-4.
  85. ↑ Chouki El Hamel (27 February 2014). Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–. ISBN 978-1-139-62004-8.
  86. ↑ Shirley Guthrie (1 August 2013). Arab Women in the Middle Ages: Private Lives and Public Roles. Saqi. ISBN 978-0-86356-764-3.
  87. ↑ William D. Phillips (1985). Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade. Manchester University Press. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-0-7190-1825-1.
  88. ↑ Ibn Batuta; Said Hamdun; Noel Quinton King (March 2005). Ibn Battuta in Black Africa. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-55876-336-4.
  89. ↑ Ibn Battuta (1 September 2004). Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354. Psychology Press. pp. 334–. ISBN 978-0-415-34473-9.
  90. ↑ Raymond Aaron Silverman (1983). History, art and assimilation: the impact of Islam on Akan material culture. University of Washington. p. 51.
  91. ↑ Noel Quinton King (1971). Christian and Muslim in Africa. Harper & Row. p. 22.
  92. ↑ Natalie Mobini-Kesheh (January 1999). The Hadrami Awakening: Community and Identity in the Netherlands East Indies, 1900-1942. SEAP Publications. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-0-87727-727-9.
  93. ↑ السودانيون والعلويون Al-Sūdānīyūn wa'l-'Alawīyūn الارشاد Al-Irshād (Al-Irsyad, Al-Irsjad, Al-Irshad) October 14, 1920 pp. 2-3
  94. ↑ Alexander, J. (2001). "Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa". World Archaeology. 33 (1): 44–60. doi:10.1080/00438240126645. JSTOR 827888.
  95. 1 2 P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). "Abd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
  96. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0195062833.
  97. ↑ Murray Gordon (1989). Slavery in the Arab World. New York: New Amsterdam Books. p. 41. ISBN 9780941533300.
  98. ↑ Ehud R. Toledano (1998), Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East, University of Washington Press, pp. 13–4, ISBN 0-295-97642-X
  99. 1 2 3 Bernard Lewis (2003), "From Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry", in Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino, Racism: A Global Reader, M.E. Sharpe, pp. 52–8, ISBN 0-7656-1060-4
  100. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (2002), Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford University Press, p. 41, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
  101. ↑ Aristotle, Politics, Book I.
  102. ↑ Bernard Lewis (1992), Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry, Oxford University Press, pp. 18–9, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
  103. ↑ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 12–5, ISBN 0-313-32270-8
  104. ↑ A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, New York, 1948, p. 205
  105. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (2002), Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford University Press, p. 93, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
  106. ↑ Noel King (ed.), Ibn Battuta in Black Africa, Princeton 2005, p. 54
  107. ↑ Hannoum, Abdelmajid (1 January 2003). "Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn Orientalist". History and Theory. 42 (1): 61–81. JSTOR 3590803.
  108. ↑ Please note : The numbers occurring in the source, and repeated here on Wikipedia include both Arab and European trade. M’bokolo, Elikia (April 1998). "A Hundred And Fifty Years After France Abolished Slavery: The impact of the slave trade on Africa". http://mondediplo.com. Le Monde diplomatique. Retrieved 3 June 2015. External link in |website= (help)
  109. ↑ International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs
  110. ↑ Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Lee Pouwels, The History of Islam in Africa, (Ohio University Press, 2000), p.255.
  111. ↑ Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century (Asmara, Eritrea: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp.416
  112. ↑ Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.432
  113. ↑ Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.59 & 435
  114. ↑ Conlin, Joseph (2009), The American Past: A Survey of American History, Boston, MA: Wadsworth, p. 206, ISBN 978-0-495-57288-6, retrieved 10 October 2010
  115. ↑ McDaniel, Antonio (1995), Swing low, sweet chariot: the mortality cost of colonizing Liberia in the nineteenth century, University of Chicago Press, p. 11, ISBN 0-226-55724-3
  116. ↑ Emery Van Donzel, "Primary and Secondary Sources for Ethiopian Historiography. The Case of Slavery and Slave-Trade in Ethiopia," in Claude Lepage, ed., Études éthiopiennes, vol I. France: Société française pour les études éthiopiennes, 1994, pp.187-88.
  117. ↑ Doudou Diène (2001). From Chains to Bonds: The Slave Trade Revisited. Berghahn Books. p. 16. ISBN 1571812652. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  118. ↑ Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.13
  119. ↑ James Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 12: V. 12, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2003), p.490
  120. ↑ David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.52
  121. ↑ Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), p. 51
  122. ↑ Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson (1986). The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521541107. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  123. ↑ Moorehead, Alan (1960), The White Nile, New York: Harper & Brothers, pp. 11–12, ISBN 9780060956394
  124. ↑ Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, "Traite", in Encyclopædia Universalis (2002), corpus 22, page 902.
  125. ↑ Ralph Austen, African Economic History (1987)
  126. ↑ Quoted in Ronald Segal's Islam's Black Slaves
  127. ↑ Adam Hochschild (Mar 4, 2001). "Human Cargo". New York Times. Retrieved Dec 20, 2012.
  128. ↑ Ronald Segal (2002), Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN 978-0374527976

Further reading

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/1/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.