White Croats

European territory inhabited by West Slavs and East Slavs circa 700-850 AD.

White Croats (Croatian: Bijeli Hrvati, Polish: Biali Chorwaci, Czech: Bílí Chorvati, Ukrainian: Білі хорвати tr. Bili Khorvaty) were a group of Slavic tribes who lived among other West and East Slavic tribes in the area of Bohemia, Lesser Poland, Galicia (north of Carpathian Mountains) and Western Ukraine.[1][2][3]

They were documented primarily by foreign medieval authors, and have managed to preserve their ethnic name to the early 20th century. In the 7th century, some White Croats migrated from their homeland White Croatia to the territory of modern-day Croatia.

Origin

It is generally considered that the name of Croats - Hrvat/Horvat/Harvat, etymologically is not of Slavic origin, but a borrowing from Iranian languages.[4] It is considered that the ethnonym Hrvat is first attested on the two Tanais Tablets, found in the Greek colony of Tanais in the late 2nd and early 3rd century AD, at the time when the colony was surrounded by Iranian-speaking Sarmatians.[5] The first Iranian tribes who lived on the shores of Sea of Azov were Scythians, who arrived there c. 7th century BCE.[6] Around the 4th century BCE they withdrew before the incursions of Sarmatians.[7] In that area occurred extensive Early Slavic and Iranian cultural and linguistical contacts.[8][9]

From the 4th until the 7th century, Slavs who lived in that area and to the West between Dniester and Dnieper in the medieval sources were known as Antes.[10][11] It is thought that White Croats were part of the Antes tribal polity who migrated to Galicia in the 3rd-4th century, under pressure by invading Huns and Goths.[12][13] They lived there until the Antes were attacked by the Pannonian Avars in 560, and the polity was finally destroyed in 602 by the same Avars.[14][15] The theory is further explained with the Avar's destruction of Antes tribal polity in 602, and that the early Croats migration and subsequent war with Avars in Dalmatia (during the reign of Heraclius 610-641) can be seen as continuation of war between Antes and Avars.[16][15]

The epithets "white" for Croats and their homeland Croatia, as well as "great" (megali) for Croatia, is in relation to the symbolism used in ancient times. The epithet "white" is related to the use of colors for cardinal directions among Eurasian people. It meant "Western Croats", in comparison to lands where they lived before. The epithet "great" signified "subsequently populated" land, but also "old, ancient, former"[17] homeland for newly arrived Croats to the Roman province of Dalmatia.[18][19][20]

To this day there's a dispute among Slavic scholars whether they were of Irano-Alanic, West Slavic, or East Slavic origin.[21][22][23][24] Whether the early Croats were Slavs who had taken a name of Iranian origin or were ruled by the Sarmatian elite caste, or were Slavicized Sarmatians, the remote Irano-Sarmatian elements or influences on the Croatian ethnogenesis cannot be entirely excluded.[25][3][26][27]

Ptolemaic map of Scythia 1598; the Horinei are mentioned below Amazons.

Any mention of the Croats before the 9th century is uncertain, and there were several loose attempts at tracing; Struhates and Auhates by Herodotus, Chatti and Chattuarii by Strabo, Choatræ and Arivates by Pliny the Elder,[28] Horites by Orosius in 418 AD,[29] and the Harus (original form Hrws,[30] some read Hrwts;[31] Hros, Hrus) at the Sea of Azov, near mythical Amazons,[32] mentioned by Zacharias Rhetor in 550 AD.[30] The Hros some relate to the ethnonym of the Rus' people.[30][33]

History

Middle Ages

Nestor the Chronicler in his Primary Chronicle (12th century) mentions them, depending on manuscript, as Horvate Belii or Hrovate Belii: "Over a long period the Slavs settled beside the Danube, where the Hungarian and Bulgarian lands now lie. From among these Slavs, parties scattered throughout the country and were known by appropriate names, according to the places where they settled. Thus some came and settled by the river Morava, and were named Moravians, while others were called Czechs. Among these same Slavs are included the White Croats, the Serbs, and the Carinthians. For when the Vlakhs (Romans) attacked the Danubian Slavs, settled among them, and did them violence, the latter came and made their homes by the Vistula, and were then called Lyakhs (Lendians or Lechites). Of these same Lyakhs some were called Polyanians, some Lutichians, some Mazovians, and still others Pomorians".[34]

Most what is known about the early history of White Croats comes from the work by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII, De Administrando Imperio (10th century).[35] The 30th chapter "Story of the province of Dalmatia" recounts:

"These same Croats arrived as refugees to the emperor of the Romaioi Heraclius before the Serbs came as refugees to the same Emperor Heraclius, at that time when the Avars had fought and expelled from those parts the Romani... Now, by the command of the Emperor Heraclius, these same Croats fought and expelled the Avars from those parts, and, by mandate of Heraclius the emperor they settled down in that same country of the Avars, where they now dwell. These same Croats had the father of Porga for their archon at that time... (It should be known) that ancient Croatia, also called "white", is still unbaptized to this day, as are also its neighboring Serbs. They muster fewer horsemen as well as fewer foot than baptized Croatia, because they are constantly plundered by the Franks and Turks and Pechenegs. Nor do they have either sagēnai or kondourai or merchant ships, because they live far away from sea; it takes 30 days of travel from the place where they live to the sea. The sea to which they comedown to after 30 days, is that which is called dark".[36]

According to this chapter, the Pechenegs and Hungarians were neighbors of the White Croats to the east in the second half of the 9th century. In that time Franks plundered Moravia, while White Croatia was part of the Moravian kingdom.[37]

In the 31st chapter "Of the Croats and of the country they now dwell in" is written:

"The Croats at that time were dwelling beyond Bagibareia (usually considered Bavaria), where the Belocroats are now. From them split off a family, namely of five brothers, Kloukas and Lobelos and Kosentzis and Mouchlo and Chrobatos, and two sisters, Touga and Bouga, who came with their folk to Dalmatia and found this land under the rule of the Avars. After they had fought one another for some years, the Croats prevailed and killed some of the Avars and the remainder they compelled to be subject to them... The rest of the Croats stayed over near Francia, and are nowcalled the Belocroats, that is, the White Croats, and have their own archon; they are subject to Otto, the great king of Francia, which is also Saxony, and are unbaptized, and intermarry and are friendly with the Turks. From the Croats who came to Dalmatia, a part split off and took rule of Illyricum and Pannonia. They too had an independent archon, who would maintain friendly contact, though through envoys only, with the archon of Croatia".[38]

This migration is probably related to the previous uprising of the Slavs led by Samo against the Pannonian Avars in 632.[39][40] The White Croats could have been the neighbors of the Franks as early as 846 or 869, when Bohemia was under the control of Eastern Francia. Otto I ruled the Moravians only from 950, and the White Croats were also part of the Moravian state, at least from 929.[41]

Similar story is mentioned in the work by Thomas the Archdeacon, Historia Salonitana (13th century), where is recounted how seven or eight tribes of nobles, which he called Lingones, arrived from present-day Poland and settled in Croatia under Totila's leadership.[42] According to Archdeacon, they were called as Goths, but also Slavs, according to personal names of those who came from Poland or the Czech.[43] Some scholars consider Lingones distorted name for the Polish tribe of Lendians.[44]

Alfred the Great in his Geography of Europe (888–893) relaying on Orosius, recorded that "To the north-east of the Moravians are the Dalamensae; east of the Dalamensians are the Horithi (Choroti, Choriti;[45] Croats), and north of the Dalamensians are the Servians (Serbs); to the west also are the Silesians. To the north of the Horiti is Mazovia, and north of Mazovia are the Sarmatians, as far as the Riphean Mountains".[46] The initial north-east position was probably wrongly transcribed, as north-west position agrees with other sources on the position of the Croats on Oder and Vistula.[47]

Nestor described how many East Slavic tribes of "...the Polyanians, the Derevlians, the Severians, the Radimichians, and the Croats lived at peace".[48] In 904-907, "Leaving Igor (914–945) in Kiev, Oleg (879–912) attacked the Greeks. He took with him a multitude of Varangians, Slavs, Chuds, Krivichians, Merians, Polyanians, Severians, Derevlians, Radimichians, Croats, Dulebians, and Tivercians, who are pagans. All these tribes are known as Great Scythia by the Greeks. With this entire force, Oleg sallied forth by horse and by ship, and the number of his vessels was two thousand".[49] After Vladimir the Great (980–1015) conquered several Slavic tribes and cities to the West,[22] in 992 he "attacked the Croats. When he had returned from the Croatian War, the Pechenegs arrived on the opposite side of the Dnieper".[50] Since then those Croats became part of Kievan Rus, and aren't mentioned anymore in Russian Chronicles.[51][22] It seems that Croatian tribes who lived in the area of Bukovina and Galicia, inhibited his free access to the Vistula river,[52] and did not want submit to Kievan centralism.[53]

By the 7th century White Croats established foritifed Horods (Gord), which became commerce and trade centers.[22] Galicia was important geographical location because connected overland Kiev in the East with Cracow, Buda, Prague and other cities in the West, as well northwestward to the Baltic Sea and southeastward to the Black Sea.[22] On this routes developed Przemyśl, Zvenyhorod, Terebovlia, and Halych.[22]

Polish chronicler Wincenty Kadłubek in his Chronica Polonorum (12-13th century) recounted that Bolesław I the Brave (992 to 1025) conquered some "Hunnos seu Hungaros, Cravatios et Mardos, gentem validam, suo mancipavit imperio".[51][54] The distribution of the Croatian name in the toponyms, shows that the Croatia around Vistula river corresponded with later territory of Lesser Poland.[55]

Many Croats also lived in the territory of Bohemia. The Prague Charter from 1086 AD (actually with data from 973) mentions on the Northeastern frontier of the Prague diocese "Psouane, Chrouati et altera Chrowati, Zlasane...".[56] They were probably located around Elbe river in Czech Republic, while others on upper Vistula in Poland.[57] Some scholars located these Czech Croats on the territory of present-day Chrudim, Hradec Králové, Libice and Kłodzko.[58][59] Vach argued that they had most developed building technique of building fortifications among Czech Slavs.[60] Many scholars consider that the Slavník dynasty, which competed with the Přemyslid dynasty for control over Bohemia and eventually succumbed to them, was of White Croats origin. According to a legend on Wenceslaus I, his mother Drahomíra fled in exile to Xorvaty.[61][62] After Slavník's main gord Libice destruction in 995, White Croats aren't mentioned more in that territory.[63]

Thietmar of Merseburg recorded in 981 toponym Chrvuati vicus (also later recorded in 11th-14th century), which is present-day Großkorbetha, between Halle and Merseburg in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany.[64] The Chruuati (901) and Chruuati (981) near Halle.[65] In charter by Henry II is recorded Chruazzis (1012), by Henry III as Churbate (1055), by Henry IV as Grawat (also Curewate, 1086). This settlement today is Korbetha on river Saale, near Weißenfels.[64]

In the 10th-12th centuries Croatian name can be often found in the territory of March and Duchy of Carinthia, as well March and Duchy of Styria.[66] In 954, Otto I in his charter mentions župa Croat - "hobas duas proorietatis nostrae in loco Zuric as in pago Crouuati et in ministerio Hartuuigi",[67] and again in 961 pago Crauuati.[68] The pago Chruuat is also mentioned by Otto II (979), and pago Croudi by Otto III.[69]

In the 10th century, Arab historian Al-Masudi in his work The Meadows of Gold mentioned Harwātin or Khurwātīn, between Moravians, Chezchs and Saxons.[70][71] In the geography book Hudud al-'Alam in the area of Slavs is mentioned their two capital cities, Wabnit (actually Wāntit, considered Antes[72]), the fist city East of Slavs, and Hurdāb, a big city where rulers reside on river Rūtā (probably Prut).[73][74] In the chronicles of the time word šahr meant "country, state, city" - thus Hurdāb represented Croats.[75] In work by Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī it is mentioned as ʒ(h)-rāwat.[75] Ahmad ibn Rustah recounts that the land of Pechenegs is ten days away from the Slavs, and that the city in which lives Swntblk (Svatopluk) is called ʒ-r-wāb (Džervab > Hrwat), where every month Slavs do three-day long trade fair.[72] Swntblk is called "king of kings", has riding horses, sturdy armor, eats mare's milk, and is more important than Subanj (considered Slavic title župan), who is his deputy.[76] George Vernadsky considered these details as evidence of Alanic and Eurasian nomadic origin of the ruling caste among those Slavs.[76] In the Hebrew book Josippon are listed four Slavic ethnic names from Venice to Saxony; Mwr.wh (Moravians), Krw.tj (Croats), Swrbjn (Sorbs), Lwcnj.[77] Those Croats are probably those who were located in Bohemia.[77]

It is considered that the migration of those (White) Croatian tribes who arrived in the 7th century was the second and final Slavic migratory wave to the Balkans.[39][40][23] Although it is possible that some Croatian tribes were present among Slavs in the first wave in the 6th century, the Croatian migration in the second wave wasn't equally numerous to make a significant common-linguistical influence.[40][23] The Croatian tribes are seen as a warrior group who assimilated into already present Slavs who were in majority.[40]

Archeology

Mound of the gord Stilsko.

According to research by Valentin Vasilevich Sedov in 1979, all early mentions of Croatian ethnonym are in the areas where ceramics of Prague-Penkovka culture were found. It originated in the area between Dniester and Dnieper, and later expanded to the West, and its bearers were the Antes tribes.[78] Archaeological excavations in the 1980s revealed a big city of about 250 ha between Stilsko and Iliv, in Western Ukraine. Ukrainian archeologists attribute it to the White Croats.[79] Excavations of Slavic kurgans and tombs in Carpathian Mountains in the 1930s and 1960s were also attributed to them.[80] Some scholars linguistically and archeologically draw parallels between Croats and Slavs, and the Carpi, who previously lived in the territory of Carpathian Mountains.[81] In the 11th and 13th century, the appearance of tiled tombs in Western Dnieper region is attributed to the Croats, and sometime Tivertsi.[82] Scholars attribute to the Croats forts West and North of river Prut and in Northern Bukovina; the Revno, Červona Dibrova, Kodin, Bila, Široka Poljana, Klokučka, Grobnica, Červenovo, Orosijevo, Červone, Uzhhorod.[83]

Religion

Croatian tribes were like other Slavs polytheists - pagans.[84] Their worldview intertwined with worship of power and war, to which raised places of worship, and demolished those of others.[85] These worships were in contrast to Christianity, and conflict when Christianism became official ideology among the Slavs.[86] The White Croats at the earliest historical sources are mentioned as pagans, and they were similar to Ukrainians (Kievan Rus') who also late received Christianity (988).[87] Slavs often related places of worship with natural environment, like hills, forests and water.[88] According to Nestor, Vladimir the Great in 980 raised on a hill near his fort pantheon of Slavic gods; Perun, Hors, Dažbog, Stribog, Simargl, and Mokosh.[53] One of the probable reasons Vladimir attacked Croats in 992 was because they didn't want to abandon their old beliefs and accept Christianity.[53] Some scholars derived Croatian ethnonym from the Iranian word for Sun - hvar.[89][90] Paščenko argued possibility that in the ethnonym of the Croats could be seen archaic religion and mythology - the worship of the Slavic solar deity Hors (Sun, heavenly fire, force, war[91]), which is of Iranian origin.[92]

Etymology

The origin of the names of five brothers and two sisters are matter of dispute. They are often considered to be of non-Slavic origin,[23] and genuine names, as the anonymous Slavic narrator (probably a Croat) couldn't invent the non-Slavic names of their ancestors in the 9th century.[93] It was probably part of an oral tradition.[23] J.J. Mikkola considered them to be of Turkic origin,[94][95] Vladimir Košćak of possible Iranian-Alanic origin,[96] while Alemko Gluhak saw parallels in Old Prussian and Baltic languages.[97] Henri Grégoire rejected Turkic origin, and related them to Slavic place names which previously were part of White Croatia.[98] According to Gluhak, names Kloukas, Lobelos, Kosentzes and possibly Mouchlo don't seem to be part of Scythian or Alanic name directory.[99] Josip Modestin connected their names to toponyms from Lika, where early Croats settled.[100] In this legend is probably reflected migration of seven tribes.[101]

Chrobatos; read as Hrovatos, is generally considered to represent Croatian ethnonym Hrvat/Horvat, and the Croatian tribe.[101] Some scholars like J. B. Bury related it with the Turkic name of the Bulgars khan Kubrat.[42][102] This etymology is problematic, beside from historical viewpont, as in all forms of Kubrat's name, the letter "r" is third consonant.[102]

Kloukas; has Greek suffix "-as", thus the root Klouk- has several derivations; Mikkola considered Turkic Külük, while Tadeusz Lewicki Slavic Kuluk and Kluka.[103] Grégoire related it with cities Cracow or Głogów.[98] Modestin related it to village Kukljić.[100] Gluhak noted several Prussian and Latvian personal names and toponyms with root *klauk-, which relates to sound-writing verbs *klukati (peck) and *klokotati (gurgle).[99] The first mentioned king of the Alans was named Kuluk (c. 51-78 AD).[104]

Lobelos; Mikkola considered it a name of uncertain Avar ruler.[103] Osman Karatay considered common Slavic shift Lobel < Alpel (as in Lab < Elbe).[105] Grégoire related it with city Lublin.[98] Modestin related it to Lovinac.[100] Gluhak noted many Baltic personal names with root *lab- and *lob- e.g. Labelle, Labulis, Labal, Lobal, which derive from *lab- (good) or lobas (bays, ravine, valley).[106]

Kosentzis; Mikkola considered Turkic suffix "-či", and derived it from Turkic koš (camp), košun (army).[103] Grégoire related it with city Košice.[98] Modestin related it to Kosinj.[100] Many scholars consider relation with Old-Slavic title word *kosez or *kasez, that meant social class members who freely elected the knez of Carantania (658–828). In the 9th century they became nobles, and their tradition preserved until the 16th century. There were many toponyms with the title in Slovenia, but also in Lika in Croatia.[29] Gluhak also noted Baltic names with root *kas- which probably derives from kàsti (dig), and Thracian Kossintes, Cosintos, Cositon.[107]

Mouchlo; Mikkola related it to the name of 6th century Hunnic (Bulgar[105] or Kutrigur[108]) ruler Mougel/Mouâgeris.[103] Modestin related it to Mohljić.[100] Gluhak noted Lithuanian muklus and Latvian muka which refer to the mud and marshes, and Prussian names e.g. Mokil, Mokyne.[109] There existed Antes king with similar name Musokios/Musocius.

Touga; Mikkola related it with male Turkic name Tugai.[103] Modestin related it to the Tugomirići, one of the Croatian "twelve noble tribes" described in the Pacta conventa and Supetar Cartulary.[100] Gluhak noted Old Norse-Germanic *touga (fog, darkness), which meaning wouldn't be much different from other names with Baltic derivation.[110]

Bouga; Mikkola related it with male Turkic name Buga, while Lewicki noted Turkic name of Hun Bokhas, Peceneg Bogas, and two generals of Arabian kalifs, Bogaj.[94] Grégoire related it with the Bug River.[98] Modestin related it to Bužani (probably related to Buzhans), medieval Croatian tribe.[100] Gluhak noted Proto-Slavic word *buga which in Slavic languages mean "swamp" like places, and the river Bug itself derive from.[110]

Porga; it derives from Iranian pouru-gâo, "rich in cattle".[111]

Modern era

Polish writer Kazimierz Władysław Wóycicki released work Pieśni ludu Białochrobatów, Mazurów i Rusi z nad Bugu in 1836.[112]

In 1861, in the statistical data about population in Volhynia governorship released by Mikhail Lebedkin, were counted Horvati with 17,228 people.[113][71]

According to some American documents from the beginning of the 20th century, Polish immigrants to the US born in around Kraków declared themselves as Krakus, Crakowiak, or Bielochrovat (i.e. White Croats) by nationality.[114]

Legacy and legends

According to Chezch and Polish chronicles, the legendary Lech and Czech came from (White) Croatia.[63] The Chronicle of Dalimil (14th century) recounts;

"V srbském jazyku jest země, jiežto Charvaty jest imě; v téj zemi bieše Lech, jemužto jmě bieše Čech".[63]

Alois Jirásek recounted as "Za Tatrami, v rovinách při řece Visle rozkládala se od nepaměti charvátská země, část prvotní veliké vlasti slovanské" (Behind the Tatra Mountains, in the plains of the river Vistula, stretched from immemorial time Charvátská country (White Croatia), the initial part of the great Slavic homeland), and V té charvátské zemi bytovala četná plemena, příbuzná jazykem, mravy, způsobem života (In Charvátská existed numerous tribes, related by language, manners, and way of life).[115]

One of the legendary figures Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv who founded Kiev, brother Khoryv or Horiv, and its oronym Khorevytsia, is often related to the Croatian ethnonym.[116][117] This legend, recorded by Nestor, has similar Armenian transcript from the 7th-8th century, in which Horiv is mentioned as Horean.[118] Paščenko related his name, beside to the Croatian ethnonym, to solar deity Hors.[117] Near Kiev there's a stream where previously existed large homonymous village Horvatka or Hrovatka (destroyed in the time of Joseph Stalin), which flows into Stuhna River.[119] In the vicinity are parts of the Serpent's Wall.[120]

Scholars consider that Croats could have been mentioned in the Old English and Nordic epic poems. The verse in Old English poem Widsith (10th century):

Wulfhere sohte ic ond Wyrmhere; ful oft þær wig ne alæg, I visited Wulfhere and Wyrmhere; there battle often raged,
þonne Hræda here heardum sweordum, when the Hræda with their sharp swords,
ymb Wistlawudu wergan sceoldon in the Vistula woods had to defend
ealdne eþelstol Ætlan leodum. their ancestral seat against Attila's host.

The Hræda is genitive plural of *Hraede, and is usually related with the Goths (Hred-Gotum, Hreth-Gotan, Hreidhgotar).[121] However, this verse is similar to the one in Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (13th century), where prior the battle between Goths and Huns, Heidrek died in Harvaða fjöllum (Carpathian Mountains[122][123]) which is often translated as "beneath the mountains of Harvathi".[121][124] Lewicki argued that Anglo-Saxons, as in the case of Alfred the Great where called Croats Horithi, often distorted foreign Slavic names.[125]

The legendary Czech hermit from the 9th century, Svatý Ivan, is mentioned as the son of certain king Gestimul or Gostimysl, who according to the Czech chronicles descended from the Croats or Obotrites.[126]

The White Croats contributed and assimilated into Czech, Polish and Ukrainian ethnos.[127] Some historians suppose White Croats as the predecessors of the Rusyn people.[128][129]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Subtelny 2009, p. 57.
  2. ↑ Magocsi 2010, p. 49.
  3. 1 2 Dzino 2010, pp. 113, 21.
  4. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 95.
  5. ↑ Heršak, Nikšić 2007, p. 262.
  6. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 100–101.
  7. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 101–102.
  8. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 102.
  9. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 42–54.
  10. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 110.
  11. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 84.
  12. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 115–116.
  13. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 84–87.
  14. ↑ Košćak 1995, p. 111.
  15. 1 2 Paščenko 2006, p. 141.
  16. ↑ Heršak, Nikšić 2007, p. 263.
  17. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 84–88.
  18. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 122–125.
  19. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 27.
  20. ↑ Kim 2013, pp. 146, 262.
  21. ↑ Magocsi 1983, p. 49.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Magocsi 2002, p. 4.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Van Antwerp Fine, Jr. 1991, pp. 53, 56.
  24. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 58.
  25. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 305–306.
  26. ↑ Škegro 2005, p. 12.
  27. ↑ Norris 1993, p. 15.
  28. ↑ Marčinko 2000, p. 318–319, 433.
  29. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 127.
  30. 1 2 3 Danylenko 2004, pp. 1–32.
  31. ↑ Škegro 2005, p. 13.
  32. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 88, 91–92.
  33. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 87–95.
  34. ↑ Cross, Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953, p. 53.
  35. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 116–117.
  36. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 49, 54, 83, 88.
  37. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 89.
  38. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 111–122.
  39. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 217.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Majorov 2012, p. 62.
  41. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 120.
  42. 1 2 Heršak, Nikšić 2007, p. 259.
  43. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 129–130.
  44. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 130.
  45. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 52.
  46. ↑ Ingram 1807, p. 72.
  47. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 210.
  48. ↑ Cross, Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953, p. 56.
  49. ↑ Cross, Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953, p. 64.
  50. ↑ Cross, Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953, p. 119.
  51. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 144.
  52. ↑ Hanak 2013, p. 32.
  53. 1 2 3 Paščenko 2006, p. 123.
  54. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 74.
  55. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 147.
  56. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 148.
  57. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 149.
  58. ↑ Vach 2006 (1949), p. 239.
  59. ↑ Widajewicz 2006 (1949), p. 267–268.
  60. ↑ Vach 2006 (1949), p. 240–242.
  61. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 150.
  62. ↑ Vach 2006 (1949), p. 255–256.
  63. 1 2 3 Gluhak 1990, p. 151.
  64. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 158.
  65. ↑ Marčinko 2000, p. 183.
  66. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 161–167.
  67. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 161.
  68. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 161–162.
  69. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 162.
  70. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 211.
  71. 1 2 Zimonyi 2015, pp. 295, 319.
  72. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 212–213.
  73. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 211–212.
  74. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 161.
  75. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 212.
  76. 1 2 Vernadsky 2008 (1935), p. 262–263.
  77. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 214.
  78. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 130–134.
  79. ↑ Korčinskij 2006 (1991), p. 68–71.
  80. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 113.
  81. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 115–116.
  82. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 118.
  83. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 119.
  84. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 143.
  85. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 144, 146.
  86. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 144.
  87. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 145, 147.
  88. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 145.
  89. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 59.
  90. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 92.
  91. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 79.
  92. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 67–82, 109–111.
  93. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 114.
  94. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 126–127.
  95. ↑ Margetić 2001, p. 32.
  96. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 126, 218.
  97. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 218–221.
  98. 1 2 3 4 5 Karatay 2003, p. 93.
  99. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 218.
  100. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gluhak 2000, p. 21.
  101. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 222.
  102. 1 2 Karatay 2003, p. 86–91.
  103. 1 2 3 4 5 Gluhak 1990, p. 126.
  104. ↑ Alans (Alani / Geloni)
  105. 1 2 Karatay 2003, p. 92.
  106. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 219.
  107. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 128–129.
  108. ↑ Golden 1990, p. 99.
  109. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 220.
  110. 1 2 Gluhak 1990, p. 221.
  111. ↑ Živković 2012, p. 54.
  112. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 121–122.
  113. ↑ Gluhak 1990, p. 145.
  114. ↑ United States Immigration commission 1911, pp. 22, 40, 43, 88, 105.
  115. ↑ Jirásek 2015.
  116. ↑ Malyckij 2006 (1990), p. 106–107.
  117. 1 2 Paščenko 2006, p. 99–102, 109.
  118. ↑ Malyckij 2006 (1990), p. 107.
  119. ↑ Strižak 2006 (1990), p. 106–107.
  120. ↑ Strižak 2006 (1990), p. 187.
  121. 1 2 Lewicki 2006 (1951), p. 95.
  122. ↑ Pendergrass 2015, p. 75.
  123. ↑ Shippey 2014, p. 53.
  124. ↑ Acker & Larrington 2013, p. 245.
  125. ↑ Lewicki 2006 (1951), p. 95–96.
  126. ↑ Vašica 2008 (1935), p. 242, 244, 247–248, 250–258.
  127. ↑ Paščenko 2006, p. 131.
  128. ↑ Majorov 2012, p. 78.
  129. ↑ Magocsi 1995.

Sources

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/12/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.