Working time

"9 to 5" redirects here. For other uses, see 9 to 5 (disambiguation).

Working time is the period of time that a person spends at paid labor. Unpaid labor such as personal housework or caring for children or pets is not considered part of the working week.

Many countries regulate the work week by law, such as stipulating minimum daily rest periods, annual holidays, and a maximum number of working hours per week. Working time may vary from person to person, often depending on location, culture, lifestyle choice, and the profitability of the individual's livelihood. For example, someone who is supporting children and paying a large mortgage will need to work more hours to meet basic costs of living than someone of the same earning power without children. Because fewer people than ever are having children,[1] choosing part time work is becoming more popular.[2]

Standard working hours (or normal working hours) refers to the legislation to limit the working hours per day, per week, per month or per year. If an employee needs to work overtime, the employer will need to pay overtime payments to employees as required in the law. Generally speaking, standard working hours of countries worldwide are around 40 to 44 hours per week (but not everywhere: from 35 hours per week in France[3] to up to 112 hours per week in North Korean labor camps [4]), and the additional overtime payments are around 25% to 50% above the normal hourly payments. Maximum working hours refers to the maximum working hours of an employee. The employee cannot work more than the level specified in the maximum working hours law.[5]

Hunter-gatherer

Since the 1960s, the consensus among anthropologists, historians, and sociologists has been that early hunter-gatherer societies enjoyed more leisure time than is permitted by capitalist and agrarian societies;[6][7] For instance, one camp of !Kung Bushmen was estimated to work two-and-a-half days per week, at around 6 hours a day.[8] Aggregated comparisons show that on average the working day was less than five hours.[6]

Subsequent studies in the 1970s examined the Machiguenga of the Upper Amazon and the Kayapo of northern Brazil. These studies expanded the definition of work beyond purely hunting-gathering activities, but the overall average across the hunter-gatherer societies he studied was still below 4.86 hours, while the maximum was below 8 hours.[6] Popular perception is still aligned with the old academic consensus that hunter-gatherers worked far in excess of modern humans' forty-hour week.[7]

History

The industrial revolution made it possible for a larger segment of the population to work year-round, because this labor was not tied to the season and artificial lighting made it possible to work longer each day. Peasants and farm laborers moved from rural areas to work in urban factories, and working time during the year increased significantly.[9] Before collective bargaining and worker protection laws, there was a financial incentive for a company to maximize the return on expensive machinery by having long hours. Records indicate that work schedules as long as twelve to sixteen hours per day, six to seven days per week were practiced in some industrial sites.

Recent articles[10][11] supporting a four-day week have argued that reduced work hours would increase consumption and invigorate the economy. However, other articles state that consumption would decrease.[12][13] Other arguments for the four-day week include improvements to worker's level of education (due to having extra time to take classes and courses) and improvements to worker's health (less work-related stress and extra time for exercise). Reduced hours also save money on day care costs and transportation, which in turn helps the environment with less carbon-related emissions. These benefits increase workforce productivity on a per-hour basis.

1906 - Strike for the 8 working hours per day in France

Over the 20th century, work hours shortened by almost half, mostly due to rising wages brought about by renewed economic growth, with a supporting role from trade unions, collective bargaining, and progressive legislation. The workweek, in most of the industrialized world, dropped steadily, to about 40 hours after World War II. The limitation of working hours is also proclaimed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,[14] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,[15] and European Social Charter.[16] The decline continued at a faster pace in Europe: for example, France adopted a 35-hour workweek in 2000. In 1995, China adopted a 40-hour week, eliminating half-day work on Saturdays (though this is not widely practiced). Working hours in industrializing economies like South Korea, though still much higher than the leading industrial countries, are also declining steadily.

Technology has also continued to improve worker productivity, permitting standards of living to rise as hours decline.[17] In developed economies, as the time needed to manufacture goods has declined, more working hours have become available to provide services, resulting in a shift of much of the workforce between sectors.

Economic growth in monetary terms tends to be concentrated in health care, education, government, criminal justice, corrections, and other activities that are regarded as necessary for society rather than those that contribute directly to the production of material goods.

In the mid-2000s, the Netherlands was the first country in the industrialized world where the overall average working week dropped to less than 30 hours.[18]

Gradual decrease in working hours

Most countries in the developed world have seen average hours worked decrease significantly.[19][20] For example, in the U.S in the late 19th century it was estimated that the average work week was over 60 hours per week.[21] Today the average hours worked in the U.S is around 33,[22] with the average man employed full-time for 8.4 hours per work day, and the average woman employed full-time for 7.7 hours per work day.[23] The front runners for lowest average weekly work hours are the Netherlands with 27 hours,[24] and France with 30 hours.[25] At current rates the Netherlands is set to become the first country to reach an average work week under 21 hours.[26] In a 2011 report of 26 OECD countries, Germany had the lowest average working hours per week at 25.6 hours.[27]

The New Economics Foundation has recommended moving to a 21-hour standard work week to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of free time.[28][29][30] Actual work week lengths have been falling in the developed world.[31]

Factors that have contributed to lowering average work hours and increasing standard of living have been:

Workweek structure

"9-5" redirects here. For the car, see Saab 9-5.
For other uses, see day job and 9 to 5 (disambiguation).
Main article: Workweek

The structure of the work week varies considerably for different professions and cultures. Among salaried workers in the western world, the work week often consists of Monday to Friday or Saturday with the weekend set aside as a time of personal work and leisure. Sunday is set aside in the western world because it is the Christian sabbath.

The traditional American business hours are 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday to Friday, representing a workweek of five eight-hour days comprising 40 hours in total. These are the origin of the phrase 9-to-5, used to describe a conventional and possibly tedious job.[32] Negatively used, it connotes a tedious or unremarkable occupation. The phrase also indicates that a person is an employee, usually in a large company, rather than self-employed. More neutrally, it connotes a job with stable hours and low career risk, but still a position of subordinate employment. The actual time at work often varies between 35 and 48 hours in practice due to the inclusion, or lack of inclusion, of breaks. In many traditional white collar positions, employees were required to be in the office during these hours to take orders from the bosses, hence the relationship between this phrase and subordination. Workplace hours have become more flexible, but even still the phrase is commonly used.

The meaning of the phrase in common usage has radically changed over the recent years or decades. Formerly the meaning of "someone working 9 to 5" was in the positive, that someone was working really hard to make his living in a full time job. Nowadays the usual meaning of a "9 to 5 guy" or a "9 to 5 mentality" is in a negative way, that someone has a less than desirable approach to work, being a "clock watcher" and refusing overtime. So the meaning changed from "working a lot/hard" to "could work more/harder".

Several countries have adopted a workweek from Monday morning until Friday noon, either due to religious rules (observation of shabbat in Israel whose workweek is Sunday to Friday afternoon) or the growing predominance of a 35–37.5 hour workweek in continental Europe. Several of the Muslim countries have a standard Sunday through Thursday or Saturday through Wednesday workweek leaving Friday for religious observance, and providing breaks for the daily prayer times.

Average annual hours actually worked per worker

2015

Top four: [33]

2014

Source: 2014 OECD[34]

This table includes mostly only countries in the OECD.

Rank Country HoursRemarks
1  India2,365
2  Mexico2,228
3  Costa Rica2,216
4  South Korea2,124
5  Greece2,042
6  Chile1,990
7  Russia1,985
8  Latvia1,938
9  Poland1,923
10  Iceland1,864
11  Estonia1,859
12  Hungary1,858
13  Portugal1,857
14  Israel1,853
15  Lithuania1,834
16  Turkey1,832 data in 2013
17  Ireland1,821
18  United States1,789
19  Czech Republic1,776
OECD average1,770
20  Slovak Republic1,763
21  New Zealand1,762
22  Italy1,734
23  Japan1,729
24  Canada1,704
25  Spain1,689
26  United Kingdom1,677
27  Australia1,664
28  Finland1,645
29  Luxembourg1,643
30  Austria1,629
31  Sweden1,609
32  Belgium1,576data in 2013
33   Switzerland1,568
34  Slovenia1,561
35  France1,473
36  Denmark1,436
37  Norway1,427
38  Netherlands1,425
39  Germany1,371

Differences among countries and regions

South Korea

South Korea has the fastest shortening working time in the OECD,[35] which is the result of the government's proactive move to lower working hours at all levels to increase leisure and relaxation time, which introduced the mandatory forty-hour, five-day working week in 2004 for companies with over 1,000 employees. Beyond regular working hours, it is legal to demand up to 12 hours of overtime during the week, plus another 16 hours on weekends. The 40-hour workweek expanded to companies with 300 employees or more in 2005, 100 employees or more in 2006, 50 or more in 2007, 20 or more in 2008 and a full inclusion to all workers nationwide in July 2011.[36] The government has continuously increased public holidays to 16 days in 2013, more than the 10 days of the United States and double that of the United Kingdom's 8 days.[37] Despite those efforts, South Korea's work hours are still relatively long, with an average 2,163 hours per year in 2012.[38]

Japan

Work hours in Japan are decreasing, but many Japanese still work long hours.[39] Recently, Japan's Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) issued a draft report recommending major changes to the regulations that govern working hours. The centerpiece of the proposal is an exemption from overtime pay for white-collar workers.Japan has enacted an 8-hour work day and 40-hour work week (44 hours in specified workplaces). The overtime limits are: 15 hours a week, 27 hours over two weeks, 43 hours over four weeks, 45 hours a month, 81 hours over two months and 120 hours over three months; however, some workers get around these restrictions by working several hours a day without 'clocking in' whether physically or metaphorically.[40] The overtime allowance should not be lower than 125% and not more than 150% of the normal hourly rate.[41]

European Union

In most European Union countries, working time is gradually decreasing.[42] The European Union's working time directive imposes a 48-hour maximum working week that applies to every member state except the United Kingdom and Malta (which have an opt-out, meaning that UK-based employees may work longer than 48 hours if they wish, but they cannot be forced to do so).[43] France has enacted a 35-hour workweek by law, and similar results have been produced in other countries through collective bargaining. A major reason for the low annual hours worked in Europe is a relatively high amount of paid annual leave.[44] Fixed employment comes with four to six weeks of holiday as standard. In the UK, for example, full-time employees are entitled to 28 days of paid leave a year.[45] It is commonly understood working hours in the UK are 09.00 to 17.00.

Mexico

Mexican laws mandate a maximum of 48 hours of work per week, but they are rarely observed or enforced due to loopholes in the law, the volatility of labor rights in Mexico, and its underdevelopment relative to other members countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Indeed, private sector employees often work overtime without receiving overtime compensation. Fear of unemployment and threats by employers explain in part why the 48-hour work week is disregarded..

Colombia

Articles 161 to 167 of the Substantive Work Code in Colombia provide for a maximum of 48 hours of work a week.[46]

Australia

In Australia, between 1974 and 1997 no marked change took place in the average amount of time spent at work by Australians of "prime working age" (that is, between 25 and 54 years of age). Throughout this period, the average time spent at work by prime working-age Australians (including those who did not spend any time at work) remained stable at between 27 and 28 hours per week. This unchanging average, however, masks a significant redistribution of work from men to women. Between 1974 and 1997, the average time spent at work by prime working-age Australian men fell from 45 to 36 hours per week, while the average time spent at work by prime working-age Australian women rose from 12 to 19 hours per week. In the period leading up to 1997, the amount of time Australian workers spent at work outside the hours of 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on weekdays also increased.[47]

In 2009, a rapid increase in the number of working hours was reported in a study by The Australia Institute. The study found the average Australian worked 1855 hours per year at work. According to Clive Hamilton of The Australia Institute, this surpasses even Japan. The Australia Institute believes that Australians work the highest number of hours in the developed world.[48]

From January 1, 2010, Australia enacted a 38-hour workweek in accordance with the Fair Work Act 2009, with an allowance for additional hours as overtime.[49]

The vast majority of full-time employees in Australia work additional overtime hours. A 2015 survey found that of Australia's 7.7 million full-time workers, 5 million put in more than 40 hours a week, including 1.4 million who worked more than 50 hours a week and 270,000 who put in more than 70 hours.[50]

United States

In 2006, the average man employed full-time worked 8.4 hours per work day, and the average woman employed full-time worked 7.7 hours per work day.[23] There is no mandatory minimum amount of paid time off for sickness or holiday. However, regular full-time workers often have the opportunity to take about nine days off for various holidays, two weeks (10 business days) of sick leave and two weeks (10 business days) of paid holiday time, with some workers receiving additional time after several years. The majority of jobs in America do not offer paid time off. [51] Because of the pressure of working, time is increasingly viewed as a commodity.[52]

Recent history

By 1946 the United States government had inaugurated the 40-hour work week for all federal employees.[53] Beginning in 1950, under the Truman Administration, the United States became the first known industrialized nation to explicitly (albeit secretly) and permanently forswear a reduction of working time. Given the military-industrial requirements of the Cold War, the authors of the then secret National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68)[54] proposed the US government undertake a massive permanent national economic expansion that would let it “siphon off” a part of the economic activity produced to support an ongoing military buildup to contain the Soviet Union. In his 1951 Annual Message to the Congress, President Truman stated:

In terms of manpower, our present defense targets will require an increase of nearly one million men and women in the armed forces within a few months, and probably not less than four million more in defense production by the end of the year. This means that an additional 8 percent of our labor force, and possibly much more, will be required by direct defense needs by the end of the year. These manpower needs will call both for increasing our labor force by reducing unemployment and drawing in women and older workers, and for lengthening hours of work in essential industries.[55]

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average non-farm private sector employee worked 34.5 hours per week as of June 2012.[56]

As President Truman’s 1951 message had predicted, the share of working women rose from 30 percent of the labor force in 1950 to 47 percent by 2000 – growing at a particularly rapid rate during the 1970s.[57] According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics report issued May 2002, "In 1950, the overall participation rate of women was 34 percent ... The rate rose to 38 percent in 1960, 43 percent in 1970, 52 percent in 1980, and 58 percent in 1990 and reached 60 percent by 2000. The overall labor force participation rate of women is projected to attain its highest level in 2010, at 62 percent.”[57] The inclusion of women in the work force can be seen as symbolic of social progress as well as of increasing American productivity and hours worked.

Between 1950 and 2007 official price inflation was measured to 861 percent. President Truman, in his 1951 message to Congress, predicted correctly that his military buildup “will cause intense and mounting inflationary pressures.” Using the data provided by the United State Bureau of Labor Statistics, Erik Rauch has estimated productivity to have increased by nearly 400%.[58] According to Rauch, “if productivity means anything at all, a worker should be able to earn the same standard of living as a 1950 worker in only 11 hours per week.”

In the United States, the working time for upper-income professionals has increased compared to 1965, while total annual working time for low-skill, low-income workers has decreased.[59] This effect is sometimes called the "leisure gap".

The average working time of married couples – of both husband and wife taken together – rose from 56 hours in 1969 to 67 hours in 2000.[60]

Overtime rules

Many professional workers put in longer hours than the forty-hour standard. In professional industries like investment banking and large law firms, a forty-hour workweek is considered inadequate and may result in job loss or failure to be promoted.[61][62] Medical residents in the United States routinely work long hours as part of their training.

Workweek policies are not uniform in the U.S. Many compensation arrangements are legal, and three of the most common are wage, commission, and salary payment schemes. Wage earners are compensated on a per-hour basis, whereas salaried workers are compensated on a per-week or per-job basis, and commission workers get paid according to how much they produce or sell.

Under most circumstances, wage earners and lower-level employees may be legally required by an employer to work more than forty hours in a week; however, they are paid extra for the additional work. Many salaried workers and commission-paid sales staff are not covered by overtime laws. These are generally called "exempt" positions, because they are exempt from federal and state laws that mandate extra pay for extra time worked.[63] The rules are complex, but generally exempt workers are executives, professionals, or sales staff.[64] For example, school teachers are not paid extra for working extra hours. Business owners and independent contractors are considered self-employed, and none of these laws apply to them.

Generally, workers are paid time-and-a-half, or 1.5 times the worker's base wage, for each hour of work past forty. California also applies this rule to work in excess of eight hours per day,[65] but exemptions[66] and exceptions[67] significantly limit the applicability of this law.

In some states, firms are required to pay double-time, or twice the base rate, for each hour of work past 60, or each hour of work past 12 in one day in California, also subject to numerous exemptions and exceptions.[65] This provides an incentive for companies to limit working time, but makes these additional hours more desirable for the worker. It is not uncommon for overtime hours to be accepted voluntarily by wage-earning workers. Unions often treat overtime as a desirable commodity when negotiating how these opportunities shall be partitioned among union members.

Brazil

The work time in Brazil is 44 hours per week, usually 8 hours per day and 4 hours on Saturday or 8.8 hours per day. On duty/no meal break jobs are 6 hours per day. Public servants work 40 hours a week.

It is worth noting that in Brazil meal time is not usually counted as work. There is a 1-hour break for lunch and work schedule is typically 8h00 or 9h00-noon, 13h00 -18h00. In larger cities people have lunch meal on/near the work site, while in smaller cities a sizable fraction of the employees might go home for lunch.

A 30-day vacation is mandatory by law and there are about 13 to 15 holidays a year, depending on the municipality.

China

China adopted a 40-hour week, eliminating half-day work on Saturdays (though this was not widely practiced initially). [68]

Traditionally, Chinese have worked long hours, and this has led to many deaths from overwork, with the state media reporting in 2014 that 600,000 people were dying annually from overwork. Despite this, work hours have reportedly been falling for about three decades due to rising productivity, better labor laws, and the spread of the two-day weekend. The trend has affected both factories and white-collar companies that have been responding to growing demands for easier work schedules.[69][70]

Hong Kong

Until now, Hong Kong has no legislation regarding maximum and normal working hours. The average weekly working hours of full-time employees in Hong Kong is 49 hours.[71] According to the Price and Earnings Report 2012 conducted by UBS, while the global and regional average were 1,915 and 2,154 hours per year respectively, the average working hours in Hong Kong is 2,296 hours per year, which ranked the fifth longest yearly working hours among 72 countries under study.[72] In addition, from the survey conducted by the Public Opinion Study Group of the University of Hong Kong, 79% of the respondents agree that the problem of overtime work in Hong Kong is “severe”, and 65% of the respondents support the legislation on the maximum working hours.[73] In Hong Kong, 70% of surveyed do not receive any overtime remuneration.[74] These show that people in Hong Kong concerns the working time issues. As Hong Kong implemented the minimum wage law in May 2011, the Chief Executive, Donald Tsang, of the Special Administrative Region pledged that the government will standardize working hours in Hong Kong.[75]

On 26 November 2012, the Labour Department of the HKSAR released the "Report of the policy study on standard working hours". The report covers three major areas, including: (1) the regimes and experience of other places in regulating working hours, (2)latest working time situations of employees in different sectors, and (3) estimation of the possible impact of introducing standard working hour in Hong Kong.[76] Under the selected parameters, from most loosen to most stringent, the estimated increase in labour cost vary from 1.1 billion to 55 billion HKD, and affect 957,100 (36.7% of total employees)to 2,378,900 (91.1%of total) employees.[71]

Various sectors of the community show concerns about the standard working hours in Hong Kong. The points are summarized as below:

Singapore

Singapore enacts an 8-hour normal work day, a 44-hour normal working week, and a maximum 48-hour work week. It is to note that if the employee works no more than five days a week, the employee’s normal working day is 9-hour and the working week is 44 hours. Also, if the number of hours worked of the worker is less than 44 hours every alternate week, the 44-hour weekly limit may be exceeded in the other week. Yet, this is subjected to the pre-specification in the service contract and the maximum should not exceed 48 hours per week or 88 hours in any consecutive two week time. In addition, a shift worker can work up to 12 hours a day, provided that the average working hours per week do not exceed 44 over a consecutive 3-week time. The overtime allowance per overtime hour must not be less than 1.5 times of the employee’s hour basic rates.[96]

Other countries

The Kapauku people of Papua think it is bad luck to work two consecutive days. The !Kung Bushmen work just two-and-a-half days per week, rarely more than six hours per day.[97]

The work week in Samoa is approximately 30 hours,[98] and although average annual Samoan cash income is relatively low, by some measures, the Samoan standard of living is quite good.

In India, particularly in smaller companies, someone generally works for 11 hours a day and 6 days a week. No Overtime is paid for extra time. Law enforcement is negligible in regulating the working hours. A typical office will open at 09:00 or 09:30 and officially end the work day at about 19:00. However, many workers and especially managers will stay later in the office due to additional work load. However, large Indian companies and MNC offices located in India tend to follow a 5-day, 8- to 9-hour per day working schedule. The Government of India in some of its offices also follows a 5-day week schedule.

Nigeria has public servants that work 35 hours per week.

Many modern workplaces are experimenting with accommodating changes in the workforce and the basic structure of scheduled work. Flextime allows office workers to shift their working time away from rush-hour traffic; for example, arriving at 10:00 am and leaving at 6:00 pm. Telecommuting permits employees to work from their homes or in satellite locations (not owned by the employer), eliminating or reducing long commute times in heavily populated areas. Zero-hour contracts establish work contracts without minimum-hour guarantees; workers are paid only for the hours they work.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "World Development Indicators - Google Public Data Explorer". Google.co.uk. 2009-07-01. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  2. ↑ Woods, Judith (1 May 2012). "More and more workers join the part-time revolution". The Daily Telegraph. London.
  3. ↑ "French labour laws: Working time and leave < Jobs France | Expatica France". Expatica.com. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  4. ↑ Ryall, Julian (2013-09-05). "Up to 20,000 North Korean prison camp inmates have 'disappeared' says human rights group". The Daily Telegraph. London.
  5. ↑ Ho, Lok Sang (20 November 2012). "Setting maximum work hours first". China Daily.
  6. 1 2 3 Hans-Joachim Voth (2000) Time and work in England 1750–1830, Chapter 5, Comparisons and conclusions pp. 242–5
  7. 1 2 Farb, Peter (1968). Man's Rise to Civilization As Shown by the Indians of North America from Primeval Times to the Coming of the Industrial State. New York City: E. P. Dutton. p. 28. LCC E77.F36. Most people assume that the members of the Shoshone band worked ceaselessly in an unremitting search for sustenance. Such a dramatic picture might appear confirmed by an erroneous theory almost everyone recalls from schooldays: A high culture emerges only when the people have the leisure to build pyramids or to create art. The fact is that high civilization is hectic, and that primitive hunters and collectors of wild food, like the Shoshone, are among the most leisured people on earth.
  8. ↑ Cohen, Yehudi (1974). Man in Adaptation: the cultural present. Aldine Transaction. pp. 94–95. ISBN 0-202-01109-7. In all, the adults of the Dobe camp worked about two and a half days a week. Because the average working day was about six hours long, the fact emerges that !Kung Bushmen of Dobe, despite their harsh environment, devote from twelve to nineteen hours a week to getting food. Even the hardest working individual in the camp, a man named =oma who went out hunting on sixteen of the 28 days, spent a maximum of 32 hours a week in the food quest.
  9. ↑ Juliet Schor (1991) The Overworked American, pp. 43–seq, excerpt: Pre-industrial workers had a shorter workweek than today's
  10. ↑ "Business: On the Way to a Four-Day Week". Time. 1971-03-01.
  11. ↑ Janice Peterson – DAILY HERALD (2008-06-09). "Study finds four-day work week optimal". Heraldextra.com. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  12. ↑ Anders Hayden – Common Dreams (2012-06-11). "Working Less for a Sustainable Future". CommonDreams.com.
  13. ↑ Sharing the Work, Sparing the Planet. book.
  14. ↑ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 24
  15. ↑ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Article 7
  16. ↑ European Social Charter, Article 2
  17. ↑ ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/opt/lpr/histmfgsic.zip
  18. ↑ "Working time in the European Union: the Netherlands". Eurofound.europa.eu. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  19. ↑ "Insee - Travail-Emploi - Soixante ans de réduction du temps de travail dans le monde". Insee.fr. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  20. ↑ "Evolution de la durée du travail en France et dans le monde - Direccte". Lorraine.direccte.gouv.fr. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  21. ↑ "Hours of Work in U.S. History". Economic History Association. 2010-02-01.
  22. ↑ "United States Average Weekly Hours". Bsu.edu. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  23. 1 2 "American Time Use Survey Summary". Bls.gov. 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  24. ↑ "Gapminder World". Gapminder.org. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  25. ↑ "Gapminder World". Gapminder.org. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  26. ↑ "Those ever longer working hours « Adam Smith Institute". Adamsmith.org. 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  27. ↑ "Countries where people work least". nbcnews.com. 2012. Retrieved 2015-02-09.
  28. ↑ Coote, Anna; Franklin, Jane; Simms, Andrew (February 2010). "21 hours: Why a shorter working week can help us all to flourish in the 21st century" (PDF). London: New Economics Foundation. ISBN 9781904882701. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  29. ↑ Stuart, H. (January 7, 2012) "Cut the working week to a maximum of 20 hours, urge top economists" The Guardian
  30. ↑ Schachter, H. (February 10, 2012) "Save the world with a 3-day work week" Globe and Mail
  31. ↑ Gapminder Foundation (2011) "Gapminder World" graph of working hours per week plotted against purchasing power- and inflation-adjusted GDP per capita over time gapminder.org
  32. ↑ http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/nine-to-five+job
  33. ↑ http://focustaiwan.tw/news/asoc/201610060016.aspx
  34. ↑ "Average annual hours actually worked per woker". OECD.
  35. ↑ OECD. "Average annual hours actually worked per worker". Stats.oecd.org. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  36. ↑ 주5일근무제 : 지식백과 (in Korean). 100.naver.com. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  37. ↑ "[시사이슈 찬반토론] 대체휴일제 부활 옳을까요". Hankyung.com. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  38. ↑ https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ANHRS
  39. ↑ Justine Underhill (2015-08-20). "The 100 hour work week in Japan". finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
  40. ↑ Measures for Working Hours – Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2012-11-12
  41. ↑ Japan– Labour Standards Law ILO, 2012-11-12
  42. ↑ OECD. "Average annual hours actually worked per worker". Stats.oecd.org. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  43. ↑ "Working time limits (the 48-hour week) : Directgov – Employment". Direct.gov.uk. 2009-08-01. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  44. ↑ "No-vacation nation USA – a comparison of leave and holiday in OECD countries – Page 2, Paragraph 1 - Introduction" (PDF).
  45. ↑ "Holiday entitlement". GOV.UK. 2014-06-27. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  46. ↑ "Jornada de trabajo máxima en Colombia". Gerencie.com. 2014-07-10. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  47. ↑ Bittman, Michael & Rice, James Mahmud. (2002). "The spectre of overwork: An analysis of trends between 1974 and 1997 using Australian time-use diaries". Labour and Industry 12 (3), 5–25. (3.4 MB PDF file)
  48. ↑ "PM – Australians work longest hours in the developed world". Abc.net.au. 2004-11-19. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  49. ↑ National Employment Standards (NES) – Commonwealth of Australia, 2012-05-23
  50. ↑ http://www.smh.com.au/business/workplace-relations/the-38hour-week-a-rarity-among-fulltime-workers-new-data-shows-20151027-gkk1r6.html
  51. ↑ "Table 4. Average paid holidays and days of paid holiday and paid sick leave, full-time employees, 1997". Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  52. ↑ Smith, Stephen C. "The meaning of time for reduced-load workers and their families". Docs.lib.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  53. ↑ California Assembly Concurrent Resolution 11, Cal. Resolutions 1946, Ch. 19
  54. ↑ "NSC-68, Beginning Section VI". Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  55. ↑ "Harry S. Truman: Annual Message to the Congress: The President's Economic Report". Presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  56. ↑ "Average weekly hours and overtime of all employees on private nonfarm payrolls by industry sector, seasonally adjusted". Employment Situation. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
  57. 1 2 "A century of change: the U.S. labor force, 1950–2050" (PDF). Monthly Labor Review. May 2002. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  58. ↑ "Productivity and the Workweek". mit.edu. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
  59. ↑ "The Theory of the Leisure Class: An economic mystery: Why do the poor seem to have more free time than the rich? – By Steven E. Landsburg – Slate Magazine". Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  60. ↑ "Working in the 21st Century". U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 2016-10-02.
  61. ↑ Kuckes, Niki. "Legal Affairs". Legal Affairs. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  62. ↑ California Bar Journal Archived January 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  63. ↑ "What do the terms exempt and nonexempt mean?". Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  64. ↑ "elaws – Fair Labor Standards Act Advisor". Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  65. 1 2 "Overtime in California FAQ". Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  66. ↑ "Exemptions from the overtime laws". Retrieved 2015-03-17.
  67. ↑ "Exceptions to the general overtime law". Retrieved 2015-03-17.
  68. ↑ (Chinese) 中華人民共和國勞動法 – 中華人民共和國中央人民政府 , 2005-08-05
  69. ↑ http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/06/how-hard-does-china-work
  70. ↑ http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/fcb542e6-6789-11e1-b6a1-00144feabdc0.html#axzz48KBG3umG
  71. 1 2 Report of the Policy Study on Standard Working Hours Labour Department, HKSARG, retrieved on 2012-12-10
  72. ↑ Prices and Earnings UBS, 2012-11-07
  73. ↑ Oxfam Hong Kong releases survey on Minimum Wage and Standard Working Hours Oxfam Hong Kong, Retrieved on 2012-12-10
  74. 1 2 (Chinese) 工黨「父親節」工時問卷調查報告 工黨，2012-06-17
  75. ↑ Standard work hours still years away: Tsang China Daily, 2010-10-15
  76. ↑ Policy Study on Standard Working Hours Labour Department, HKSARG, retrieved on 2012-12-10
  77. ↑ (Chinese) 大失預算-最低工資曾衝擊業界 港股王 – 蘋果日報，2012-10-08
  78. ↑ Chamber chief suggests labor import SCMP,2012-10-08
  79. ↑ (Chinese)Investigate choices beyond standard working hours Shu-kam Lee, Cho-yiu Ng, retrieved on 2012-11-30
  80. ↑ working hours could derail Hong Kong's economy, warns government adviser SCMP,2012-12-03
  81. ↑ Council Meeting (Agenda) 17 October 2012 Legislative Council Commission, HKSARG, retrieved on 2012-12-10
  82. ↑ Voting Results Legislative Council Commission, HKSARG, retrieved on 2012-12-10
  83. ↑ (Chinese) 工聯會宣布十大工作重點 香港成報，2012-10-10
  84. ↑ (Chinese) 民主黨2011/12施政報告建議書 捍衛核心價值 縮窄貧富懸殊 | 民主黨 民主黨，2011-10-11
  85. ↑ (Chinese) 勞工 – 工黨 Labour Party 工黨，2012
  86. ↑ Social welfare and livelihood Civic Party LegCo Election 2012, retrieved on 2012-11-12
  87. ↑ (Chinese) 盡快落實制訂標準工時 林健鋒，2011-06-23
  88. ↑ LegCo rejects standard work hours proposal China Daily, 2012-10-19
  89. ↑ City Digest, October 19,2012 SCMP, 2012-10-19
  90. ↑ (Chinese) 標準工時雖動聽 政治現實恐難容 HKET, 2012-02-27
  91. ↑ 城市論壇 標準工時徵建議 勞資官民齊集思 on YouTube (Chinese)
  92. ↑ Lee, S.K. et al. 2012. Standard Working Hours or Flexible Working Hours – Policy alternatives to facilitate Work-Life Balance, Hong Kong: Ovis Press.
  93. ↑ (Chinese) Standard working hours cannot increase recreation time Shu-kam Lee, Cho-yiu Ng, 2012-10-26
  94. ↑ (Chinese)「標準工時」會否僵化勞動市場？ 雷鼎鳴，2010-12-08
  95. ↑ Business / Opinion Setting maximum work hours first CHINA DAILY USA, 2012-11-20
  96. ↑ Hours of Work & Time – Ministry of Manpower – Government of Singapore, 2012-05-04
  97. ↑ Robert Levine (1997). "A Geography of Time". Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02892-6. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  98. ↑ Pitt, David (1970). Tradition and economic progress in Samoa: A case study of the role of traditional social institutions in economic development. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-823156-3. (...) findings generally agree on an average of about 28-30 hours work per week for an adult male village worker.

Further reading

Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hours of Labour.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Working time.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/18/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.