International taxation

International taxation is the study or determination of tax on a person or business subject to the tax laws of different countries or the international aspects of an individual country's tax laws as the case may be. Governments usually limit the scope of their income taxation in some manner territorially or provide for offsets to taxation relating to extraterritorial income. The manner of limitation generally takes the form of a territorial, residential, or exclusionary system. Some governments have attempted to mitigate the differing limitations of each of these three broad systems by enacting a hybrid system with characteristics of two or more.

Many governments tax individuals and/or enterprises on income. Such systems of taxation vary widely, and there are no broad general rules. These variations create the potential for double taxation (where the same income is taxed by different countries) and no taxation (where income is not taxed by any country). Income tax systems may impose tax on local income only or on worldwide income. Generally, where worldwide income is taxed, reductions of tax or foreign credits are provided for taxes paid to other jurisdictions. Limits are almost universally imposed on such credits. Multinational corporations usually employ international tax specialists, a specialty among both lawyers and accountants, to decrease their worldwide tax liabilities.

With any system of taxation, it is possible to shift or recharacterize income in a manner that reduces taxation. Jurisdictions often impose rules relating to shifting income among commonly controlled parties, often referred to as transfer pricing rules. Residency-based systems are subject to taxpayer attempts to defer recognition of income through use of related parties. A few jurisdictions impose rules limiting such deferral ("anti-deferral" regimes). Deferral is also specifically authorized by some governments for particular social purposes or other grounds. Agreements among governments (treaties) often attempt to determine who should be entitled to tax what. Most tax treaties provide for at least a skeleton mechanism for resolution of disputes between the parties.

Introduction

Systems of taxation vary among governments, making generalization difficult. Specifics are intended as examples, and relate to particular governments and not broadly recognized multinational rules. Taxes may be levied on varying measures of income, including but not limited to net income under local accounting concepts (in many countries this is referred to as 'profit'), gross receipts, gross margins (sales less costs of sale), or specific categories of receipts less specific categories of reductions. Unless otherwise specified, the term "income" should be read broadly.

Jurisdictions often impose different income based levies on enterprises than on individuals. Entities are often taxed in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises.[1] These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.[2]

In order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have imposed "deemed" income regimes. These regimes tax some class of taxpayers according to tax system applicable to other taxpayers but based on a deemed level of income, as if earned by the taxpayer. Disputes can arise regarding what levy is proper. Procedures for dispute resolution vary widely and enforcement issues are far more complicated in the international arena. The ultimate dispute resolution for a taxpayer is to leave the jurisdiction, taking all property that could be seized. For governments, the ultimate resolution may be confiscation of property, incarceration or dissolution of the entity.

Other major conceptual differences can exist between tax systems. These include, but are not limited to, assessment vs. self-assessment means of determining and collecting tax; methods of imposing sanctions for violation; sanctions unique to international aspects of the system; mechanisms for enforcement and collection of tax; and reporting mechanisms.

Taxation systems

Systems of taxation on personal income
  No income tax on individuals
  Territorial
  Residential
  Citizenship-based

Countries that tax income generally use one of two systems: territorial or residential. In the territorial system, only local income – income from a source inside the country – is taxed. In the residential system, residents of the country are taxed on their worldwide (local and foreign) income, while nonresidents are taxed only on their local income. In addition, a very small number of countries, notably the United States, also tax their nonresident citizens on worldwide income.

Countries with a residential system of taxation usually allow deductions or credits for the tax that residents already pay to other countries on their foreign income. Many countries also sign tax treaties with each other to eliminate or reduce double taxation. In the case of corporate income tax, some countries allow an exclusion or deferment of specific items of foreign income from the base of taxation.

Individuals

The following table summarizes the taxation of local and foreign income of individuals, depending on their residence or citizenship in the country. It includes 244 entries: 194 sovereign countries, their 40 inhabited dependent territories (most of which have separate tax systems), and 10 countries with limited recognition.

Taxes local
income of		 Taxes foreign
income of
Country or territory Notes and sources
nonresident
individuals
resident
citizens
resident
foreigners
resident
citizens
resident
foreigners
nonresident
citizens
 BahamasnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 BahrainnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 BermudanonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 British Virgin IslandsnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 BruneinonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 Cayman IslandsnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 KuwaitnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 MaldivesnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 MonacononononononoNo personal income tax.[4]
 NaurunonononononoNo personal income tax.[5]
 OmannonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 Pitcairn IslandsnonononononoNo personal income tax.[6]
 QatarnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 Saint BarthelemynonononononoNo personal income tax.[7][Note 1]
 Saint Kitts and NevisnonononononoNo personal income tax.[10]
 SomalianonononononoNo personal income tax.[11]
 Turks and Caicos IslandsnonononononoNo personal income tax.[12]
 United Arab EmiratesnonononononoNo personal income tax.[3]
 VanuatunonononononoNo personal income tax.[13]
  Vatican CitynonononononoNo personal income tax.[14]
 Wallis and FutunanonononononoNo personal income tax.[15]
 Western SaharanonononononoNo personal income tax.[16]
 AngolayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 AnguillayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[17]
 BelizeyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[18][19]
 BhutanyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[20]
 BotswanayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 Costa RicayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 Democratic Republic of the CongoyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 DjiboutiyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[21]
 French PolynesiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[22]
 GeorgiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 GuatemalayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 Hong KongyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 LebanonyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 MacauyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 MalawiyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 MalaysiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 Marshall IslandsyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[23]
 MicronesiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[24]
 NamibiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 NicaraguayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 PalauyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[25]
 Palestinian AuthorityyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 PanamayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 ParaguayyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da CunhayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[26][27]
 SeychellesyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 SingaporeyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 SomalilandyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[28]
 SyriayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 TokelauyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[29]
 TuvaluyesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[30]
 ZambiayesyesyesnononoTerritorial taxation.[3]
 CubanoyesyesyesnonoResidential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners. Does not tax nonresidents.[31][32]
 PhilippinesyesyesyesyesnonoResidential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners.[3]
 Saudi ArabiayesyesyesyesnonoResidential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners.[3][Note 2]
 North KoreayesnoyesnoyesnoResidential taxation of foreigners, territorial taxation of nonresidents.[33] Does not tax income of resident citizens.[34]
 AbkhaziayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[35]
 AfghanistanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Akrotiri and DhekeliayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[36]
 AlbaniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 AlgeriayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[37]
 American SamoayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[38]
 AndorrayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[39]
 Antigua and BarbudayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[40]
 ArgentinayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 ArmeniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 ArubayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Australia (including  Christmas Island,  Cocos Islands and  Norfolk Island[41][42]) yesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 AustriayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 AzerbaijanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 BangladeshyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[43]
 BarbadosyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 BelarusyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 BelgiumyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 BeninyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[44]
 BoliviayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Bosnia and HerzegovinayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[45]
 BrazilyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 BulgariayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Burkina FasoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[46]
 BurundiyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[47]
 CambodiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 CameroonyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 CanadayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Cape VerdeyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[48]
 Central African RepublicyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[49]
 ChadyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[50]
 ChileyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 ChinayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3][51][52]
 ColombiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 ComorosyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[53]
 CongoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Cook IslandsyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[54]
 Côte d'IvoireyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 CroatiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 CuraçaoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 CyprusyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Czech RepublicyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 DenmarkyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 DominicayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[55]
 Dominican RepublicyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 East TimoryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[56]
 EcuadoryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 EgyptyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 El SalvadoryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Equatorial GuineayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 EstoniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 EthiopiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Falkland IslandsyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[57]
 Faroe IslandsyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[58]
 FijiyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Finland (including  Åland[59]) yesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* except former residents, temporarily
 France (including overseas departments[8]) yesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* except in Monaco
 GabonyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 GambiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[60]
 GermanyyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 GhanayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation. Foreign income of residents is taxed only if it is moved to Ghana.[3]
 GibraltaryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[61]
 GreeceyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 GreenlandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[62]
 GrenadayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[63]
 GuernseyyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Guinea-BissauyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[64]
 GuineayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 GuyanayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[65]
 HaitiyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[66]
 HondurasyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Hungaryyesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* with another nationality or tax treaty
 IcelandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 IndiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 IndonesiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 IranyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[67]
 IraqyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 IrelandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Isle of ManyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 IsraelyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Italyyesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* except in tax havens
 JamaicayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 JapanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 JerseyyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 JordanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 KazakhstanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 KenyayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 KiribatiyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[68]
 KosovoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[69]
 KyrgyzstanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[70]
 LaosyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LatviayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LesothoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LiberiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[71]
 LibyayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LiechtensteinyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LithuaniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 LuxembourgyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MacedoniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MadagascaryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MaliyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[72]
 MaltayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MauritaniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MauritiusyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Mexicoyesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* except in tax havens, temporarily
 MoldovayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MongoliayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[73]
 MontenegroyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MontserratyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[74]
 MoroccoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MozambiqueyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 MyanmaryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[75]
 Nagorno-KarabakhyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[76]
   NepalyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[77]
 Netherlands (including the Caribbean Netherlands[3]) yesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 New CaledoniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[78]
 New ZealandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 NigeryesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[79]
 NigeriayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 NiueyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[80]
 Northern CyprusyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[81]
 NorwayyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 PakistanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Papua New GuineayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 PeruyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 PolandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 PortugalyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Puerto RicoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3][Note 3]
 RomaniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 RussiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 RwandayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Saint LuciayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[82]
 Saint MartinyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[83][Note 4]
 Saint Pierre and MiquelonyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[85]
 Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[86]
 SamoayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[87]
 San MarinoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[88]
 São Tomé and PríncipeyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[89]
 SenegalyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 SerbiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Sierra LeoneyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[90]
 Sint MaartenyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 SlovakiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 SloveniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Solomon IslandsyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[91]
 South AfricayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 South KoreayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 South OssetiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[92]
 South SudanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[93]
 Spainyesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[3]
* except in tax havens, temporarily
 Sri LankayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 SudanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[94]
 SurinameyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[95]
 SvalbardyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[96]
 SwazilandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 SwedenyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
  SwitzerlandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 TaiwanyesyesyesyesyesnoTerritorial taxation in general, but residential taxation under the alternative minimum tax.[3]
 TajikistanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[97]
 TanzaniayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 ThailandyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 TogoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[98]
 TongayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[99]
 TransnistriayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[100]
 Trinidad and TobagoyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 TunisiayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 Turkeyyesyesyesyesyesno*Residential taxation.[101]
* except income not taxed by other countries of employees of Turkish government or companies
 TurkmenistanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[102]
 UgandayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 UkraineyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 United KingdomyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 United States Virgin IslandsyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3][Note 5]
 UruguayyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 UzbekistanyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 VenezuelayesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 VietnamyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 YemenyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[103]
 ZimbabweyesyesyesyesyesnoResidential taxation.[3]
 EritreayesyesyesnonoyesTerritorial and citizenship-based taxation.[104][105] Foreign income of nonresident citizens is taxed at a reduced flat rate.[106]
 United States (including  Guam and the  Northern Mariana Islands[38]) yesyesyesyesyesyesResidential and citizenship-based taxation. Citizens are taxed in the same manner as residents.[3][Note 6]

Residency

Residential systems face the daunting tasks of defining "resident" and characterizing the income of nonresidents. Such definitions vary by country and type of taxpayer, but usually involve the location of the person's main home and number of days the person is physically present in the country. Examples include:

Territorial systems usually tax local income regardless of the residence of the taxpayer. The key problem argued for this type of system is the ability to avoid taxation on portable income by moving it outside of the country. This has led governments to enact hybrid systems to recover lost revenue.

Citizenship

Almost all countries tax foreign income based on residency, if at all. Only two countries in the world systematically and comprehensively tax the worldwide income of nonresident citizens:[111][112]

Like Eritrea, enforcement tactics used by the US government to facilitate tax compliance include the denial of US passports to nonresident US citizens deemed to be delinquent taxpayers and the potential seizure of any US accounts and/or US-based assets. The IRS is also able exert substantial compliance pressure on nonresident citizens as a result of the FATCA legislation passed in 2010, which compels foreign banks to disclose US account holders or face crippling fines on US-related financial transactions. Unlike Eritrea, the US has faced little international backlash related to its global enforcement tactics. For example, unlike their response to Eritrea's collection efforts, Canada, Sweden and the Netherlands have all ratified intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) facilitating FATCA compliance and supporting the US global tax regime in place for US citizens (including dual nationals). The implementation of these IGAs has led to a substantial increase in US citizenship renunciations since 2012, with wait times for renunciation appointments at the US consulate in Toronto exceeding one year as of early 2016.[123]

A few other countries tax based on citizenship in limited situations:

A few other countries used to tax the foreign income of nonresident citizens, but have abolished this practice:

Other

There are some arrangements for international taxation that are not based on residency or citizenship:

Corporations

Countries do not necessarily use the same system of taxation for individuals and corporations. For example, France uses a residential system for individuals but a territorial system for corporations,[145] while Singapore does the opposite,[146] and Brunei taxes corporate but not personal income.[147]

Exclusion

Many systems provide for specific exclusions from taxable (chargeable) income. For example, several countries, notably Cyprus, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Spain, have enacted holding company regimes that exclude from income dividends from certain foreign subsidiaries of corporations. These systems generally impose tax on other sorts of income, such as interest or royalties, from the same subsidiaries. They also typically have requirements for portion and time of ownership in order to qualify for exclusion. The Netherlands offers a "participation exemption" for dividends from subsidiaries of Netherlands companies. Dividends from all Dutch subsidiaries automatically qualify. For other dividends to qualify, the Dutch shareholder or affiliates must own at least 5% and the subsidiary must be subject to a certain level of income tax locally.[148]

Some countries, such as the United States and Singapore,[149] allow deferment of tax on foreign income of resident corporations until it is remitted to the country.

Individuals versus enterprises

Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates,[150] and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.

Many systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of enterprise. For example, most countries tax partners of a partnership, rather than the partnership itself, on income of the partnership.[151] A common feature of income taxation is imposition of a levy on certain enterprises in certain forms followed by an additional levy on owners of the enterprise upon distribution of such income. For example, the U.S. imposes two levels of tax on foreign individuals or foreign corporations who own a U.S. corporation. First, the U.S. corporation is subject to the regular income tax on its profits, then subject to an additional 30% tax on the dividends paid to foreign shareholders (the branch profits tax). The foreign corporation will be subject to U.S. income tax on its effectively connected income, and will also be subject to the branch profits tax on any of its profits not reinvested in the U.S. Thus, many countries tax corporations under company tax rules and tax individual shareholders upon corporate distributions. Various countries have tried (and some still maintain) attempts at partial or full "integration" of the enterprise and owner taxation. Where a two level system is present but allows for fiscal transparency of some entities, definitional issues become very important.

Source of income

Determining the source of income is of critical importance in a territorial system, as source often determines whether or not the income is taxed. For example, Hong Kong does not tax residents on dividend income received from a non-Hong Kong corporation.[152] Source of income is also important in residency systems that grant credits for taxes of other jurisdictions. Such credit is often limited either by jurisdiction or to the local tax on overall income from other jurisdictions.

Source of income is where the income is considered to arise under the relevant tax system. The manner of determining the source of income is generally dependent on the nature of income. Income from the performance of services (e.g., wages) is generally treated as arising where the services are performed.[153] Financing income (e.g., interest, dividends) is generally treated as arising where the user of the financing resides.[154] Income related to use of tangible property (e.g., rents) is generally treated as arising where the property is situated.[155] Income related to use of intangible property (e.g., royalties) is generally treated as arising where the property is used. Gains on sale of realty are generally treated as arising where the property is situated.

Gains from sale of tangible personal property are sourced differently in different jurisdictions. The U.S. treats such gains in three distinct manners: a) gain from sale of purchased inventory is sourced based on where title to the goods passes;[156] b) gain from sale of inventory produced by the person (or certain related persons) is sourced 50% based on title passage and 50% based on location of production and certain assets;[157] c) other gains are sourced based on the residence of the seller.[158]

In specific cases, the tax system may diverge for different categories of individuals. U.S. citizen and resident alien decedents are subject to estate tax on all of their assets, wherever situated. The nonresident aliens are subject to estate tax only on that part of the gross estate which at the time of death is situated in the U.S. Another significant distinction between U.S. citizens/RAs and NRAs is in the exemptions allowed in computing the tax liability.[159]

Where differing characterizations of an item of income can result in differing tax results, it is necessary to determine the characterization. Some systems have rules for resolving characterization issues, but in many cases resolution requires judicial intervention.[160] Note that some systems which allow a credit for foreign taxes source income by reference to foreign law.[161]

Definitions of income

Some jurisdictions tax net income as determined under financial accounting concepts of that jurisdiction, with few, if any, modifications. Other jurisdictions determine taxable income without regard to income reported in financial statements.[162] Some jurisdictions compute taxable income by reference to financial statement income with specific categories of adjustments, which can be significant.[163]

A jurisdiction relying on financial statement income tends to place reliance on the judgment of local accountants for determinations of income under locally accepted accounting principles. Often such jurisdictions have a requirement that financial statements be audited by registered accountants who must opine thereon.[164] Some jurisdictions extend the audit requirements to include opining on such tax issues as transfer pricing. Jurisdictions not relying on financial statement income must attempt to define principles of income and expense recognition, asset cost recovery, matching, and other concepts within the tax law. These definitional issues can become very complex. Some jurisdictions following this approach also require business taxpayers to provide a reconciliation of financial statement and taxable incomes.[165]

Deductions

For more details on this topic, see Tax deduction.

Systems that allow a tax deduction of expenses in computing taxable income must provide for rules for allocating such expenses between classes of income. Such classes may be taxable versus non-taxable, or may relate to computations of credits for taxes of other systems (foreign taxes). A system which does not provide such rules is subject to manipulation by potential taxpayers. The manner of allocation of expenses varies. U.S. rules provide for allocation of an expense to a class of income if the expense directly relates to such class, and apportionment of an expense related to multiple classes. Specific rules are provided for certain categories of more fungible expenses, such as interest.[166] By their nature, rules for allocation and apportionment of expenses may become complex. They may incorporate cost accounting or branch accounting principles,[166] or may define new principles.

Thin capitalization

Main article: Thin capitalization

Most jurisdictions provide that taxable income may be reduced by amounts expended as interest on loans. By contrast, most do not provide tax relief for distributions to owners.[167] Thus, an enterprise is motivated to finance its subsidiary enterprises through loans rather than capital. Many jurisdictions have adopted "thin capitalization" rules to limit such charges. Various approaches include limiting deductibility of interest expense to a portion of cash flow,[168] disallowing interest expense on debt in excess of a certain ratio, and other mechanisms.

Enterprise restructure

The organization or reorganization of portions of a multinational enterprise often gives rise to events that, absent rules to the contrary, may be taxable in a particular system. Most systems contain rules preventing recognition of income or loss from certain types of such events. In the simplest form, contribution of business assets to a subsidiary enterprise may, in certain circumstances, be treated as a nontaxable event.[169] Rules on structuring and restructuring tend to be highly complex.

Credits for taxes of other jurisdictions

Further information: Tax credit and Foreign tax credit

Systems that tax income earned outside the system's jurisdiction tend to provide for a unilateral credit or offset for taxes paid to other jurisdictions. Such other jurisdiction taxes are generally referred to within the system as "foreign" taxes. Tax treaties often require this credit. A credit for foreign taxes is subject to manipulation by planners if there are no limits, or weak limits, on such credit. Generally, the credit is at least limited to the tax within the system that the taxpayer would pay on income earned outside the jurisdiction.[170] The credit may be limited by category of income,[171] by other jurisdiction or country, based on an effective tax rate, or otherwise. Where the foreign tax credit is limited, such limitation may involve computation of taxable income from other jurisdictions. Such computations tend to rely heavily on the source of income and allocation of expense rules of the system.[172]

Withholding tax

For more details on this topic, see Withholding tax.

Many jurisdictions require persons paying amounts to nonresidents to collect tax due from a nonresident with respect to certain income by withholding such tax from such payments and remitting the tax to the government.[173] Such levies are generally referred to as withholding taxes. These requirements are induced because of potential difficulties in collection of the tax from nonresidents. Withholding taxes are often imposed at rates differing from the prevailing income tax rates.[174] Further, the rate of withholding may vary by type of income or type of recipient.[175][176] Generally, withholding taxes are reduced or eliminated under income tax treaties (see below). Generally, withholding taxes are imposed on the gross amount of income, unreduced by expenses.[177] Such taxation provides for great simplicity of administration but can also reduce the taxpayer's awareness of the amount of tax being collected.[178]

Treaties

Main article: Tax treaty
  OECD members
  Accession candidate countries
  Enhanced engagement countries
Ratio of German assets in tax havens to German GDP, 1996–2008.[179] Havens in countries with tax information sharing allowing for compliance enforcement have been in decline. The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and Switzerland.

Tax treaties exist between many countries on a bilateral basis to prevent double taxation (taxes levied twice on the same income, profit, capital gain, inheritance or other item). In some countries they are also known as double taxation agreements, double tax treaties, or tax information exchange agreements (TIEA).

Most developed countries have a large number of tax treaties, while developing countries are less well represented in the worldwide tax treaty network.[180] The United Kingdom has treaties with more than 110 countries and territories. The United States has treaties with 56 countries (as of February 2007). Tax treaties tend not to exist, or to be of limited application, when either party regards the other as a tax haven. There are a number of model tax treaties published by various national and international bodies, such as the United Nations and the OECD.[181]

Treaties tend to provide reduced rates of taxation on dividends, interest, and royalties. They tend to impose limits on each treaty country in taxing business profits, permitting taxation only in the presence of a permanent establishment in the country.[182] Treaties tend to impose limits on taxation of salaries and other income for performance of services. They also tend to have "tie breaker" clauses for resolving conflicts between residency rules. Nearly all treaties have at least skeletal mechanisms for resolving disputes, generally negotiated between the "competent authority" section of each country's taxing authority.

Anti-deferral measures

Residency systems may provide that residents are not subject to tax on income outside the jurisdiction until that income is remitted to the jurisdiction.[183] Taxpayers in such systems have significant incentives to shift income outside its borders. Depending on the rules of the system, the shifting may occur by changing the location of activities generating income or by shifting income to separate enterprises owned by the taxpayer. Most residency systems have avoided rules which permit deferring income from outside its borders without shifting it to a subsidiary enterprise due to the potential for manipulation of such rules. Where owners of an enterprise are taxed separately from the enterprise, portable income may be shifted from a taxpayer to a subsidiary enterprise to accomplish deferral or elimination of tax. Such systems tend to have rules to limit such deferral through controlled foreign corporations. Several different approaches have been used by countries for their anti-deferral rules.[184]

In the United States, rules provides that U.S. shareholders of a Controlled Foreign Corporation (CFC) must include their shares of income or investment of E&P by the CFC in U.S. property.[185] U.S. shareholders are U.S. persons owning 10% or more (after the application of complex attribution of ownership rules) of a foreign corporation. Such persons may include individuals, corporations, partnerships, trusts, estates, and other juridical persons. A CFC is a foreign corporation more than 50% owned by U.S. shareholders. This income includes several categories of portable income, including most investment income, certain resale income, and certain services income. Certain exceptions apply, including the exclusion from Subpart F income of CFC income subject to an effective foreign tax rate of 90% or more of the top U.S. tax rate.[185]

The United Kingdom provides that a UK company is taxed currently on the income of its controlled subsidiary companies managed and controlled outside the UK which are subject to "low" foreign taxes.[186] Low tax is determined as actual tax of less than three-fourths of the corresponding UK tax that would be due on the income determined under UK principles. Complexities arise in computing the corresponding UK tax. Further, there are certain exceptions which may permit deferral, including a "white list" of permitted countries and a 90% earnings distribution policy of the controlled company. Further, anti-deferral does not apply where there is no tax avoidance motive.[187]

Rules in Germany provide that a German individual or company shareholder of a foreign corporation may be subject to current German tax on certain passive income earned by the foreign corporation. This provision applies if the foreign corporation is taxed at less than 25% of the passive income, as defined. Japan and some other countries have followed a "black list" approach, where income of subsidiaries in countries identified as tax havens is subject to current tax to the shareholder. Sweden has adopted a "white list" of countries in which subsidiaries may be organized so that the shareholder is not subject to current tax.

Transfer pricing

Main article: Transfer pricing

The setting of the amount of related party charges is commonly referred to as transfer pricing. Many jurisdictions have become sensitive to the potential for shifting profits with transfer pricing, and have adopted rules regulating setting or testing of prices or allowance of deductions or inclusion of income for related party transactions. Many jurisdictions have adopted broadly similar transfer pricing rules. The OECD has adopted (subject to specific country reservations) fairly comprehensive guidelines.[188] These guidelines have been adopted with little modification by many countries.[189] Notably, the U.S. and Canada have adopted rules which depart in some material respects from OECD guidelines, generally by providing more detailed rules.

Arm's length principle: It is a key concept of most transfer pricing rules, that prices charged between related enterprises should be those which would be charged between unrelated parties dealing at arm's length. Most sets of rules prescribe methods for testing whether prices charged should be considered to meet this standard. Such rules generally involve comparison of related party transactions to similar transactions of unrelated parties (comparable prices or transactions). Various surrogates for such transactions may be allowed. Most guidelines allow the following methods for testing prices: Comparable uncontrolled transaction prices, resale prices based on comparable markups, cost plus a markup, and an enterprise profitability method.

Tax avoidance

Tax avoidance schemes may take advantage of low or no-income tax countries known as tax havens. Corporations may choose to move their headquarters to a country with more favorable tax environments. In countries where movement has been restricted by legislation, it might be necessary to reincorporate into a low-tax company through reversing a merger with a foreign corporation ("inversion" similar to a reverse merger). In addition, transfer pricing may allow for "earnings stripping" as profits are attributed to subsidiaries in low-tax countries.[190]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ New residents of Saint Barthelemy are considered residents of France for tax purposes, for the first five years after moving there.[8] After this period, they become residents of Saint Barthelemy for tax purposes.[9]
  2. ↑ Saudi Arabia taxes nonresidents, as well as residents who are not citizens of the countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates), only on their local income. Residents of Saudi Arabia who are citizens of these countries do not pay income tax, but pay mandatory zakat instead, calculated on their worldwide assets and some kinds of income.
  3. ↑ Puerto Rico does not tax foreign income of nonresident citizens. However, Puerto Rican citizens are also United States citizens, and the United States taxes their worldwide income regardless of where they live.
  4. ↑ Residents of France who move to Saint Martin are not considered residents of Saint Martin for tax purposes, and continue to be taxed as residents of France, for the first five years after moving there.[8] After this period, they become residents of Saint Martin for tax purposes.[84]
  5. ↑ The United States Virgin Islands do not tax foreign income of nonresident citizens. However, citizens of the United States Virgin Islands are also United States citizens, and the United States taxes their worldwide income regardless of where they live.
  6. ↑ Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands use the same income tax code as the United States, but each territory administers it separately. In the case of nonresident citizens, individuals who acquired United States citizenship by a connection to Guam or the Northern Mariana Islands are taxed by the respective territory, instead of by the United States.[38]
  7. ↑ As of 2016, Hungary has tax treaties with the following countries and territories: Albania, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kuwait, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vietnam.[129]
  8. ↑ As of 2014, the following countries and territories are considered tax havens by Italy: Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cayman Islands, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Djibouti, Dominica, Ecuador, French Polynesia, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey (including Alderney and Sark), Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Lebanon, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Macau, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Monaco, Montserrat, Nauru, Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten), Niue, Oman, Panama, Philippines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Singapore, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Vanuatu.[130]
  9. ↑ This provision applies to income whose tax in the new country of residence is lower than 75% of the tax that the person would have paid as a resident of Mexico.[132] However, the provision does not apply if the country has a treaty to share tax information with Mexico.
  10. ↑ As of 2016, the following countries and territories are considered tax havens by Spain: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahrain, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cayman Islands, Cook Islands, Dominica, Falkland Islands, Fiji, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey, Jordan, Lebanon, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Macau, Mauritius, Monaco, Montserrat, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu.

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  55. ↑ Income Tax Act, Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica.
  56. ↑ A guide for income taxpayers, Ministry of Finance of East Timor, June 30, 1905.
  57. ↑ Employment and Taxation, Falkland Islands Government.
  58. ↑ General information about income tax in the Faroe Islands, TAKS.
  59. ↑ Åland residents get most state money per capita, Helsingin Sanomat.
  60. ↑ Gambia Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
  61. ↑ Income Tax Office, Government of Gibraltar.
  62. ↑ General information about income tax in Greenland, Nordisk eTax.
  63. ↑ Grenada Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
  64. ↑ Convention between the Portuguese Republic and the Republic of Guinea-Bissau to avoid double taxation in the matter of income taxes and to prevent tax evasion, Assembly of Portugal. (Portuguese)
  65. ↑ Guyana Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
  66. ↑ Income tax, Ministry of Economy and Finances of Haiti. (French)
  67. ↑ Iran Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
  68. ↑ Income Tax Act 1990, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
  69. ↑ Law on personal income tax, Assembly of Kosovo.
  70. ↑ What should a foreigner know about Kyrgyzstan's tax system, The Times of Central Asia.
  71. ↑ Revenue Code of Liberia Act of 2000, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Liberia, August 2002.
  72. ↑ General tax code, Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Mali, July 1999.(French)
  73. ↑ Personal Income Tax of Mongolia, China Radio International, August 26, 2008.
  74. ↑ Income Tax Act, Inland Revenue Department of Montserrat, January 1, 2002.
  75. ↑ Myanmar Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
  76. ↑ Summary of taxes, State Tax Service of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, 2010. (Armenian)
  77. ↑ Income Tax Act 2002 – Handbook, Inland Revenue Department of Nepal.
  78. ↑ Tax code of New Caledonia, Juridical documentation of New Caledonia. (French)
  79. ↑ International tax - Niger Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
  80. ↑ Income Tax Act 1961, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
  81. ↑ Income Tax Act, Ministry of Finance, Revenue and Tax Administration of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 2010. (Turkish)
  82. ↑ Know Your Taxes, Inland Revenue Department of Saint Lucia.
  83. ↑ General tax code of the Collectivity of Saint Martin, Collectivity of Saint Martin, January 1, 2012. (French)
  84. ↑ General code of territorial collectivities, Legifrance, July 26, 2012. (French)
  85. ↑ Instructions to fill in your tax return, Administration of Fiscal Services of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. (French)
  86. ↑ St. Vincent and the Grenadines: Offshore Structures and Onshore Tax and Residency Laws, Offshore Investment.
  87. ↑ Income Tax Act 1974, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
  88. ↑ General income tax, Grand and General Council of San Marino, 16 December 2013. (Italian)
  89. ↑ Code of personal income tax, Ministry of Planning and Finances of São Tomé and Príncipe, October 8, 2009. (Portuguese)
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  98. ↑ Tax assessment, liquidation and control, eRegulations Togo. (French)
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  106. 1 2 Eritrea: Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix, International Monetary Fund, July 2003.
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  108. ↑ See, e.g., "Residents and non-residents", IR20, Inland Revenue, HMRC, page 6 et seq.
  109. ↑ "RDR3: Statutory Residence Test - Publications - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-18.
  110. ↑ Switzerland requires a work permit to be employed in Switzerland. A person working in Switzerland for more than 30 days may be a resident. See http://www.taxation.ch/index.cfm/fuseaction/show/temp/default/path/1-534.htm
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  112. ↑ Canadian banks to be compelled to share clients' info with U.S., CBC News, November 25, 2013.
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  114. ↑ Security Council, by Vote of 13 in Favour, Adopts Resolution Reinforcing Sanctions Regime against Eritrea 'Calibrated' to Halt All Activities Destabilizing Region, United Nations, December 5, 2011.
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  123. ↑ Delays, costs mount for Canadians renouncing U.S. citizenship, The Globe and Mail, 9 February 2016.
  124. ↑ Finnish citizens and the 3-year rule, Finnish Tax Administration.
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  150. ↑ The U.S. taxes businesses generally at rates from 15% to 35%. However, the graduated rates for individuals are different from those for corporations. United States Code Title 26 sections 1 and 11, hereafter 26 USC 1 and 11
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  152. ↑ "www.gov.hk/en/residents/taxes/salaries/salariestax/exemption/employee.htm".
  153. ↑ Supra. 26 USC 861(a)(3)
  154. ↑ 26 USC 861(a)(1) and (2) and 862(a)(1) and (2), supra.
  155. ↑ U.S. IRC sections 861(a)(4) and 862(a)(4), supra.
  156. ↑ 26 USC 861(a)(6) and 862(a)(6), supra.)
  157. ↑ 26 USC 863(b).
  158. ↑ 26 USC 865(a). (other examples needed)
  159. ↑ Robert F. Klueger (2012). "Overview of International Estate Planning" (PDF). Valley Lawyer. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
  160. ↑ See, e.g., Pierre Boulez, in which a U.S. court determined that income received by a performer relating to sale of recordings of a musical performance was sourced to where such recordings were purchased by consumers.
  161. ↑ See, e.g., India’s rules
  162. ↑ The U.S. and many of its states define taxable income independently of financial statement income, but require reconciliation of the two. See, e.g., California Revenue and Taxation Code sections 17071 et seq.
  163. ↑ "www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pbg/tf/t2sch1/t2sch1-08e.pdf" (PDF).
  164. ↑ "Auditors - GBA4".
  165. ↑ U.S. IRS Form 1120 Schedule M-3; Canadian CRA Form T-2 Schedule 1
  166. 1 2 U.S. regulations under 26 CFR 1.861-8, et seq. at (hereafter U.S. regulations §)
  167. ↑ Contrast to "integrated" systems providing a credit to enterprise owners for a portion of enterprise level taxation.
  168. ↑ 26 USC 163(j) and long proposed regulations thereunder
  169. ↑ 26 USC 351.
  170. ↑ E.g., Egypt limits the credit to the Egyptian income tax "that may have been payable with respect to profits from works performed abroad," but without a thorough definition of terms. Article (54).
  171. ↑ U.S. rules limit the credit by categories based on the nature of the income. 26 USC 904. For 20 years prior to changes first effective in 2007, there were at least nine such categories. These included, e.g., financial services income, high-taxed income, other passive income, and other (operating or general) income. UK rules provide for separate limitations based on the schedule of income on which UK tax is computed. Thus, credits were separately limited for salaries versus dividends and interest.
  172. ↑ E.g., under U.S. rules, the credit is limited to U.S. tax on foreign source taxable income for a particular category. The rules for determining source for taxation of foreign persons (sections 861-865) apply in computing such credit, and detailed rules are provided in regulations (above) for allocating and apportioning expenses to such income.
  173. ↑ Materials from one major accounting firm provide a table of over sixty such countries. Such table is not comprehensive.
  174. ↑ E.g., Australia imposes a 10% withholding tax rate on interest, subject to treaty reduction.
  175. ↑ E.g., Thailand taxes dividends at 10% and interest at 15%.
  176. ↑ E.g., Italy taxes dividends paid to nonresidents having voting rights in the company paying the dividends at 27% but taxes dividends paid to nonresidents not having such rights at 12.5%.
  177. ↑ See, e.g., 26 USC 871, 881, and 1441.
  178. ↑ "History of the U.S. Tax System". U.S. Department of Treasury. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
  179. ↑ Shafik Hebous (2011) "Money at the Docks of Tax Havens: A Guide", CESifo Working Paper Series No. 3587, p. 9
  180. ↑ Christians, Allison (April 2005). "Tax Treaties for Investment and Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study". Northwestern Public Law Research Paper No. 05-10; Northwestern Law & Econ Research Paper No. 05-15.
  181. ↑ "Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital 2014". OECD. October 30, 2015. Retrieved 2016-08-15.
  182. ↑ Permanent establishment is defined under most treaties using language identical to the OECD model. Generally, a permanent establishment is any fixed place of business, including an office, warehouse, etc.
  183. ↑ See, for example, Singapore's provision that income from outside its borders is not taxed until brought onshore.
  184. ↑ Anti-deferral and other shifting measures have also been combatted by granting broad powers to revenue authorities under "general anti-avoidance" provisions. See a discussion of Canadian GAAR a CTF article.
  185. 1 2 Subpart F (sections 951-964)
  186. ↑ Part XVII of Chapter IV ICTA 1988
  187. ↑ http://www.hmrc.gov.uk/manuals/intmanual/INTM200000.htm
  188. ↑ "Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations".
  189. ↑ E.g., UK ICTA Section 28AA and guidelines thereunder
  190. ↑ U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2007). Earnings Stripping, Transfer Pricing and U.S. Income Tax Treaties.

Further reading

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