Philippicae

The Philippicae or Philippics are a series of 14 speeches Cicero gave condemning Mark Antony in 44 BC and 43 BC. The corpus of speeches were named and modeled after Demosthenes' Philippic, which he had delivered against Philip of Macedon, and were styled in a similar manner.

Political climate

Cicero was taken by surprise when Gaius Julius Caesar, the effective dictator of the Roman Republic, was assassinated on the fifteenth day of March, 44 BC, (known as the ides of March) by a group of Roman senators who called themselves Liberatores. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. When Marcus Junius Brutus, one of the killers, lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination, he called out Cicero's name, beseeching him to "restore the Republic!".[1] A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"[2]

Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability after the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In fact, Cicero privately expressed his regret that the murderers of Caesar had not included Antony in their plot, and he bent his efforts to the discrediting of the latter.

In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree that it would not proclaim Caesar to be a tyrant, an action that allowed Caesar's supporters, known as the Caesarian faction, to remain a lawful force. Cicero and Antony then became the two leading politicians in Rome, Cicero as spokesman for the Senate and Antony as consul, leader of the Caesarian faction and unofficial executor of Caesar's will. The two men had never been on friendly terms, and their relationship worsened after Cicero made it clear that he felt Antony was taking unfair liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions.

When Octavian, Caesar's adopted son and heir, arrived in Italy in April, Cicero formed a plan to play him against Antony.[3] In September Cicero began attacking Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics, in honour of his inspiration, Demosthenes. In praise of Octavian, he labelled him a "god-sent child" and said that the young man desired only honour and would not make the same mistake as did Caesar. Meanwhile, his attacks on Antony, whom he called a "sheep", rallied the Senate in firm opposition to Antony. During this time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled and, according to the historian Appian, he "had the [most] power any popular leader could possibly have".[3]

Cicero levied heavy fines on the supporters of Antony for petty offenses and recruited volunteers to make weapons for the supporters of the Republic. According to Appian, this policy was perceived by Antony's supporters to be so insulting that they prepared to march on Rome to arrest Cicero, but the latter fled the city and the plan was abandoned.

Summary

The first two speeches mark the outbreak of the enmity between Mark Antony and Cicero. Possibly, Cicero wanted to revive his success of the attacks on the conspiracy of Catiline; at any rate, he compares Mark Antony with his own worst political opponents Catiline and Clodius in a clever rhetorical manner. In the 3rd and 4th speeches, of 20 December 44, he tried to establish a military alliance with Octavian; the primary objective was the annihilation of Mark Antony and the restoration of the res publica libera – the free republic; to reach this goal, he favoured military means unambiguously.

As the Senate decided to send a peace delegation, in the 5, 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th speeches, he argued against the idea of an embassy and tried to mobilise the Senate and the Roman People to war. In the 10th and 11th, he supports a military strengthening of the republicans Brutus and Cassius, but he was successful only in the case of the first one. In the 12th, 13th and 14th, he wanted to wipe out any doubt against his own war policy. After the victory over Mark Antony, in the last speech he still warns against a too prompt eagerness for peace.

Consequence

Cicero’s plan to drive out Antony failed, however. After the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate. Immediately after legislating their alliance into official existence for a five-year term with consular imperium, the Triumvirate began proscribing their enemies and potential rivals. Cicero and his younger brother Quintus Tullius Cicero, formerly one of Caesar's legati, and all of their contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state though, reportedly, Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.[5]

Among the proscribed, Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted. Other victims included the tribune Salvius, who, after siding with Antony, moved his support directly and fully to Cicero. Cicero was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was eventually caught leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter going to the seaside from where he hoped to embark on a ship to Macedonia.[6] He submitted to a soldier with less than professional skills, baring his neck to him, and suffering death and a grotesque beheading. Antony requested that the hands that wrote the Philippics also be removed. His head and hands were publicly displayed in the Roman Forum to discourage any who would oppose the new Triumvirate of Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus.

References

  1. Cicero, Second Philippic Against Antony
  2. Cicero, Ad Familiares 10.28
  3. 1 2 Appian, Civil Wars 4.19
  4. cf. Ciceros, Ad Atticum 15.13.1
  5. Plutarch, Cicero 46.35
  6. Haskell, H.J.: This was Cicero (1964) p.293

Literature

External links

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